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Source: http://www.doksinet ADJECTIVES & ADVERBS expensive/expensively dramatic/dramatically full/fully day/daily Adjective = adverb: hard early daily weekly fast monthly late quarterly lonely silly No adverb: friendly costly elderly Adjectives describe nouns. Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, past participles, and other adverbs. There has been a significant improvement in the economy. The economy has improved significantly. We have had a relatively good year. Their products are always attractively packaged. She does her job extremely well. Verbs + adjectives instead of adverbs: be get look smell seem taste appear sound become feel Honda felt angry about the sale of Rover to BMW. GOOD = adjective WELL = adverb (also meaning “in good health”) You ought to go to one of his presentations. He is a very good speaker He speaks very well. She isn’t in the office today because she isn’t well. COMPARISONS Adjectives & Adverbs ADJECTIVES: old big good bad modern

profitable friendly clever older bigger better worse more/less modern more/less profitable friendlier cleverer the the the the the the the the oldest biggest best worst most modern most profitable friendliest cleverest faster earlier better worse the the the the fastest earliest best worst SHORT ADVERBS: fast early well badly Source: http://www.doksinet LONGER ADVERBS: efficiently fluently more efficiently more fluently the most efficiently the most fluently CONDITIONAL SENTENCES Zero conditional If you heat ice, it melts. ↓ ↓ if + present t. present t. Always true! First conditional If he offers me the job, I will accept it. ↓ ↓ if + present t. future Possible and probable! Second conditional If he offered me the job, I would accept it. ↓ ↓ if + past tense conditional I Possible, but improbable! Third conditional If he had offered me the job, I would have accepted it. ↓ ↓ if + past perfect t. conditional II impossible, speculation about the past! Mixed

conditional If I had accepted the job in 1995, I would be CEO now. ↓ ↓ if + past perfect t. conditional I Speculation about the past + result in the present DETERMINERS QUANTIFIERS Countable singular all the a lot of (the) no Countable plural all/all (of) the most (of the) many (of the) a lot of (the) lots of (the) several (of the) a few (of the) few (of the) no Uncountable all/all (of) the most (of the) much (of the) a lot of (the) lots of (the) several (of the) a little (of the) little (of the) no Comparison: much money more most many shares more most little money less least few shares fewer fewest All (of) the equipment needs replacing. (specific equipment in the plant) All equipment is dangerous. (all equipment in the world) Many of the older products have now been withdrawn. Much of the old furniture has now been replaced. We have a few reliable suppliers. (not many, but enough) Source: http://www.doksinet We have few reliable suppliers. (not many and not enough)

We have a little time before the end of the meeting. (not much, but enough) We have little time before the end of the meeting. (not much and not enough) Some organisations get less official support than others. This year they employed fewer mechanics than last year. DETERMINERS ARTICLES 1. Uses of “a, an” • Before unspecified singular countable nouns: “Could you let me have an envelope?” • Talk about jobs, not areas of business: Janet’s a personnel Manager, and her husband is in marketing. • Talk about frequency: We have to submit VAT returns four times a year. 2. Uses of “the” • • • • • • With a specific noun mentioned before: We have bought a Mac and a PC. The Mac cost $2500 and the PC cost $ 2100. Add specific information: Where is the file that I gave you this morning? There is only one: Would you like to come in? The chairman will see you now. Superlatives: Coca Cola is the most famous soft drink in the world. Adjectives that refer to a group: The

rich do not do enough to help the poor. Rivers, mountains, seas, countries that include a noun like union, kingdom,.: The Aral Sea in the former Soviet Union is very polluted. 3. No article • • Generalizing about uncountable /plural nouns: Money is the root of all evil. Companies, cities, roads, single islands, lakes: He works for Goldman Sachs in London. FUTURE FORMS • WILL: predictions • GOING TO: prediction based on a present fact. Something is sure to happen She is going to have a baby. I think Bob will get the job. • WILL: future facts He will be thirty in a few days’ time. • WILL: decision at the moment of • GOING TO: future plan made before speaking the moment of speaking I’ll phone you back in a minute. They are going to move their head office to NY. • PRESENT calendar SIMPLE: timetable, • PRESENT CONTIN: personal arrangements with people, fixed plans Source: http://www.doksinet My flight leaves at 10. I’m meeting the director tomorrow.

• • FUTURE FUTURE PERFECT: action will be CONTIN.: activity in progress at a future time completed before a definite time in the future I’ll have finished this by 9. Don’t phone at 8. I’ll be having a meeting INDIRECT QUESTION Bob asked, “Are you still working in London? Did you live in New York before? Where did you work there? How did you like it?” • • • Bob asked if he was still working in London. whether he had lived in New York before. where he had worked there. how he had liked it. One tense back, change of pronouns & adverbs Normal word order If, whether or interrogative pronouns INDIRECT COMMAND Anne said, “Move away!” Anne told us to move away. ↓ ACI-construction Will suggested that we should go home. ↓ “should-construction” Will suggested, “Let’s go home!” INDIRECT SPEECH Reporting verb: past tense Mary said, “I am tired. PRESENT TENSE I have worked all day. PRESENT PERFECT TENSE Yesterday I worked overtime, too. PAST

TENSE Tomorrow I will leave earlier.” FUTURE TENSE • • Mary said that she was tired. PAST TENSE She had worked all day. PAST PERFECT TENSE The day before she had worked overtime, too. PAST PERFECT TENSE The next day she would leave earlier. CONDITIONAL I ONE TENSE BACK ! Change of modals: will would shall should can could may might must had to • Change of certain adverbs: now then this that here there Source: http://www.doksinet -ING & INFINITIVE 1. Verbs followed by the –ing form: admit deny can’t help mind risk avoid dislike involve miss suggest consider enjoy justify postpone can’t stand delay finish like practise We delayed launching the product because of technical problems. 2. Expressions + -ing: It’s a waste time/money It’s (not) worth It’s great fun of It’s no use There’s no sense (in) It’s bad enough There’s no point (in) It’s no good It’s not worth repairing that machine. 3. –ing form after prepositions: They kept

on testing the new product. He became successful by providing the right product at the right time. Instead of opening up a new shop herself, she set up a franchise. 4. “to” as a preposition + -ing form: look forward to react to/ a reaction to object to/ an objection to be used to/ get used to in addition to respond to/ a response to We look forward to meeting you next week. 5. –ing form as subject: Developing a high technology product requires a lot of investment. -ING & INFINITIVE 6. –ing or infinitive: change of meaning: I remember sending him the cheque. I sent it and I can remember now that I did it. I remembered to send them the cheque. I remembered and then I sent it. I will never forget meeting the president. I met him, and he impressed me. I won’t forget to give her your message. I have made a note of it, and I will give it to her when I see her. We have stopped dealing with that firm. We used to deal with them, but we don’t deal with them any more. At 12.00

we stopped to have a break We stopped working for a break. I regret saying that I was not interested in I said I was not interested and now I think the work. that was a bad mistake. I regret to say that we will not be able to I am sorry that I have to say this. give you the contract. If the printer doesn’t work, try turning Do this and see what happens. Source: http://www.doksinet everything off and starting again. I will try to negotiate a better deal. I will make an effort to do this, it’s difficult. I like going abroad on marketing trips. I always enjoy this. I would like to go on a business trip to I want to do this. Spain. 7. Passive forms: Everyone likes being congratulated when they have worked hard. She expects to be promoted soon. She regrets having been chosen. He seems to have been transferred to Russia. -ING & INFINITIVE 8. Verbs followed by to + infinitive: afford decide guarantee neglect promise train agree demand hesitate offer refuse want arrange deserve

hope plan seem would like attempt expect learn prepare tend claim fail manage pretend threaten enable persuade encourage remind I have arranged to meet the visitors at the factory. 9. Verb + object + infinitive: advise force tell allow invite warn ask order The lawyer advised me to read the contract carefully. 10. MAKE/LET + bare infinitive: Her boss made her stay until the work was finished. My boss let me have the afternoon off. “Could you help me (to) put the boxes in the van?” 11. SEE, WATCH, NOTICE, HEAR, LISTEN TO, FEEL + bare infinitive OR + -ing: I saw him sign the cheque. I saw the consultant waiting in the reception. 12. Infinitive of purpose/ infinitive after question words: I have written to IBM to get their latest price list. I don’t know how to operate this machine. Source: http://www.doksinet „LASSEN“ 1. HAVE SOMETHING DONE: “etwas machen lassen” We usually have samples tested. We are having the case investigated by a lawyer. Informal: It’s

about time you got this old car cleaned properly. 2. HAVE SOMEONE DO SOMETHING/ GET SOMEONE TO DO SOMETHING: “jemanden etwas machen lassen” I’ll get my friend to send me a copy of the application form. I’ll have my friend send me a copy of the application form. 3. MAKE SOMEONE DO SOMETHING/ TO BE MADE TO DO SOMETHING: “jemanden etwas unter Druck machen lassen, jemanden zwingen” They made them wear uniforms. They were made to wear uniforms. 4. LET/ALLOW: “etwas zulassen, gestatten” They should let the workers decide. They didn’t allow us to speak to him. 5. SOMETHING CAN BE DONE: “etwas lässt sich machen” That cannot be changed now. 6. Spezielle Redewendungen mit “lassen” im Deutschen: He must have left his briefcase in the car. That is hard to explain. He kept us waiting for two hours. They had to put up with the treatment of the new head of department. LINKING DEVICES Cause Contrast Condition Comparison Concession Contradiction Alternation Addition Summary

Conclusion Equivalence Inclusion therefore yet then similarly anyway in fact instead also to sum up in conclusion in other words for example/ instance Highlight in particular Generalisation usually/ normally Stating the obviously obvious Coordination and Subordination when so however in that case In the same way at any rate actually alternatively in addition overall finally that means such as too in brief/short lastly namely as follows especially as a rule naturally in general of course or though but because As a matter of fact Source: http://www.doksinet The product was launched ten years ago, at a time when competition was fierce. Therefore it was difficult for us to get the commitment of all our senior management. In addition, bank interest rates made it hard for us to get the necessary financial backing, especially since they were very high initially. Different connecting methods can be used to express the same ideas. The effect, however, is different: They only opened

up three months ago but they’ve gone bankrupt already. Although they only opened up three months ago, they’ve gone bankrupt already. They only opened up three months ago; however, they’ve gone bankrupt already. NATIONALITIES COUNTRY England ADJECTIVE English France French Denmark The Netherlands Danish Dutch Finland Greece Switzerland Finnish Greek Swiss Portugal Portuguese Spain Czech Republic Poland Spanish Czech Polish NOUN (sg.) an Englishman Englishwoman a Frenchman Frenchwoman a Dane a Dutchman Dutchwoman a Finn a Greek a Swiss (man) Swiss (woman) a Portuguese (man / woman) a Spaniard a Czech a Pole NOUN (pl.) the English the French the Danes the Dutch the Finns the Greeks the Swiss the Portuguese the Spanish the Czechs the Poles NOUNS UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS advice equipment machinery progress trouble accommodation furniture money room (=space) weather baggage information news traffic work Uncountable nouns are singular: The new office furniture has arrived.

Uncountable nouns are often used with “some”: He gave me some advice. cash luggage permission travel Source: http://www.doksinet PLURAL Consonant + -y lobby - lobbies -o > -os kilo - kilos photo - photos studio - studios fiasco - fiascos -o > -os/-oes cargo – cargos/cargoes manifesto – manifestos/oes zero – zeros/zeroes Latin/Greek plurals analysis - analyses crisis - crises curriculum - curricula medium - media stimulus - stimuli formula – formulae/formulas Vowel + -y valley – valleys -o > - oes potato – potatoes tomato – tomatoes veto –vetoes embargo – embargoes Singular = plural sheep - sheep fish – fish aircraft – aircraft axis – axes criterion – criteria hypothesis – hypotheses phenomenon – phenomena thesis – theses index – indices/indexes PASSIVE It They is is being was was being has been had been will be mended would be are (past participle) are being were were being have been had been will be would be (to be in the appropr.

tense) USE: • Formal, impersonal Customers are requested to refrain from smoking. • Move the focus from the subject to the object Hamlet was written by Shakespeare. • Agent is not known or unimportant ( by omitted) The office was burgled last night. Source: http://www.doksinet PAST TENSE Yesterday, last year, in 1995, a minute ago Bob worked for IBM from 1992 to 1999. ↓ Action completed in the past PAST TENSE CONTINUOUS Sue was reading the Annual Report, ↓ when the fire alarm rang. ↑ Action in progress at a certain point of time in the past. While Anne was reading her report, her head of department was sleeping. ↓ 2 longer actions taking place at the same time in the past. PAST PERFECT TENSE After he had left the office, he bought a drink. They had come to a decision, when he left. ↓ ↓ That action was over before the other one started. Bob was cooking dinner, when Anne came home. Bob had cooked dinner, when Anne came home. Bob cooked dinner, when Anne came home.

PRESENT PERFECT Simple & continuous For, since, already, just, yet, ever, never past ← now 1. Have you ever been to New York • 2. I have known him for 5 years. • 3. Bill has just completed his report. • Sue has written 20 letters this morning. • Sue has been writing letters all morning. • They have been discussing the issue since 9 • o’clock. FOR 2 weeks: period of time SINCE Monday: point of time when action started future Some time in the life of a person / no definite point of time I still know him / action started in the past, is still going on Action is completed, but the result is important now The result (20!) is stressed – pres.perfsimple The activity is stressed – pres.perf contin They are not finished yet / the activity is still going on – Pres.perfcontin Source: http://www.doksinet PRESENT TENSE SIMPLE & CONTINUOUS Present simple Present continuous always, often, sometimes, every day now at the moment Today Bob is leaving

the house late. He is catching the bus to Trafalgar Square. He is running into the office. Bob gets up at 7. He leaves the house at 7.30 He takes the bus to Trafalgar Square. He usually has lunch at 12.30 • Habits/repeated actions The company employs 150 people. • Facts/general statements • Actions now in progress/around now In this picture a worker is checking the safety equipment. • Descriptions Ms. Brown is leaving for London tomorrow to attend a conference. • Planned future PRESENTATIONS • Introduction: Define the topic Personal touch (Why do you want to talk about it?) • Clear structure of the main points: 3 – 4 items: First. Second. Third. Finally. • Conclusion: Run over the key points again: To sum up. • Discussion: If you have any questions, please, feel free to ask them now. GOLDEN RULES FOR MEETINGS • • • • • • Start on time Be punctual Make sure everyone has a chance to contribute Don’t let anyone dominate Stick to the agenda

Don’t insist on everyone addressing the chair QUALITIES OF A GOOD CHAIRPERSON • • Listens carefully Interrupts people when necessary (too long!) Source: http://www.doksinet • • • • • • • • • Keeps to the agenda Allows everyone to have their say Asks non-speakers to speak Keeps to the time limit Begins by stating the purpose of the meeting Gives the name of the person he wants to speak next If there is a disagreement, calls for a vote Makes sure someone is keeping minutes Summarises the conclusions and decisions in the end THINGS THAT CAN GO WRONG • • • • • • • • • • Participants are not sure what the purpose of the meeting is Chairperson dominates the group People start to argue and get angry No written agenda Too many items on the agenda Some members are late Too much time is allowed for discussions Chairperson does not control the discussion – everyone talks at once Because more senior persons are asked to speak first, more junior

ones are afraid to give their ideas No one is asked to take notes and keep the minutes of the meeting FOLLOW-UP DISCUSSION • • • • • • What do you personally meetings/workshops/conferences? What should you do to prepare? What is the ideal kind of room/equipment? Should smoking be allowed? Should drinks be provided/available? What should the minutes be like? enjoy/dislike about REPORTING VERBS Verbs of reporting can take different constructions: Construction 1. Infinitive with to 2. that + clause 3. verb + ing 4. object 5. object + infinitive with to say ask X X admit accept X X X X X She said that the old version would be withdrawn shortly. He asked to be informed of any developments. They asked her to make them an offer. He admitted all the charges against him. He admitted giving the information to a competitor. She admitted that they had lost a lot of money. COMMON REPORTING VERBS (+construction): agree 1,2 decline 1,4 propose 1,2,3,4 threaten 1,2,4 claim

1,2 demand 1,2,4 refuse 1,4 announce 2,4 consent 1 promise 1,2,4 swear 1,2 assume 2 X Source: http://www.doksinet believe 2,4 declare 2 estimate 2,4 hold 2 maintain 2,4 prove 2,4 state 2,4 recommend 2,3,4,5 urge 2,3,4,5 present 4 instruct 4,5 persuade 2,4,5 confirm 2,4 demonstrate 2,4 explain 2,4 indicate 2,4 notify 2,4 report 2,4 advise 2,3,4,5 require 2,3,4,5 describe 4 command 4,5 invite 4,5 tell 2,4,5 consider 2,3,4 disclose 2,4 guess 2,4 inform 2,4 presume 2 show 2,4 authorise 3,4,5 suggest 2,3,4,5 outline 4 direct 4,5 order 2,4,5 warn 2,4,5 STATE VERBS (not used in the continuous form) • Verbs of thinking and opinions Believe, think, understand, suppose, expect, agree, doubt, know, remember, forget, mean, realize,. • Verbs of emotions and feeling Like, love, hate, care, hope, wish, want, admit,. • Verbs of having and being Belong, own, have, possess, contain, cost, seem, appear, need,. • Verbs of the senses See, hear, taste, smell, feel CHANGE OF MEANING! I think

you are right. We are thinking of leaving early. He has a lot of money He is having lunch. I see what you mean. Are you seeing Nigel tomorrow? The soup tastes awful. They are tasting wine in the cellar. TENSE CHART ACTIVE Present Past Present perfect Past perfect Future simple form I work He works continuous form Source: http://www.doksinet Future perfect Conditional I Conditional II TENSE CHART PASSIVE Present simple form I am followed He is followed continuous form simple form Do you work? Does he work? continuous form Past Present perfect Past perfect Future Future perfect Conditional I Conditional II TENSE CHART Questions ACTIVE Present Past Present perfect Past perfect Future Future perfect Conditional I Conditional II THE PASSIVE • Passive + infinitive: believe say expect think know suppose report understand Source: http://www.doksinet People say that Mori is the richest person outside the USA.
Mori is said to be the richest person outside the USA. To

refer to the past: They believe that the company lost a great deal of money on the deal.
The company is believed to have lost a great deal of money on the deal. To refer to something happening at the moment: People suppose that George Soros is planning a major new investment.
George Soros is supposed to be planning a major new investment. • Have something done: HAVE + We have OBJECT + our books PRESENT SIMPLE PRESENT CONTINUOUS PAST SIMPLE PRESENT PERFECT GOING TO MODALS PAST PARTICIPLE printed in Singapore. We have the machines cleaned regularly. He is having the letter typed out. They had the order sent by courier. Have you had your accounts checked? I’m going to have a new fax installed. We must have your office repainted. TRICKY IRREGULAR VERBS RISE ROSE RISEN RAISE RAISED RAISED ARISE AROSE ARISEN Intransitive: cannot take a direct object Transitive: takes a direct object To increase, to reach a higher level/ position To cause to increase, to generate

support/funds, to mention Intransitive: To occur, to cannot take a appear, to direct object become evident If a problem arises during installation, call the helpline immediately. You can raise the question at the next meeting. I’m afraid that the banks will have to raise interest rates again. That means they have risen three times this year. LIE LAY LAY LAID LAIN LAID Intransitive Transitive Installation is simple. The cabinet just lies on the floor After you’ve laid it there, leave it for about three hours to settle. If the material lies directly on the floor it will be okay. If the picture is laid directly on the table we’ll see it clearly. LOSE LOOSEN LOOSE LOST LOOSENED adjective LOST LOOSENED If we don’t make a good offer we risk losing the business. In the meeting he felt rather warm so he loosened his tie. verlieren lockern locker Source: http://www.doksinet We never had a formal contract, just a loose agreement. TRICKY IRREGULAR VERBS MAKE DO MADE DID

DO the accounts/budget/forecast your best business damage an exercise a favour good a job repairs research a service the typing work wrong MADE DONE MAKE an apology an appointment arrangements a budget/forecast certain a choice a complaint a decision an effort an enquiry an excuse friends (with) a loss a mistake money an offer a profit progress a report sure a trip (someone) welcome work (for others) TRICKY MODAL VERBS • ADVICE & OBLIGATION You should keep an account of all your expenses. When you go to the conference next week you ought to give Mr. Franks a ring Form BD222 should be returned to this office within 30 days. • CRITICIZING You shouldn’t have sold these shares. He ought to have applied last week. This information should have been given to the tax authorities two years ago. • PAST POSSIBILITY It was foolish to leave so much money in the office. It could have been stolen There was a fire at the warehouse last night. We could have lost all our stock

OBLIGATION must have to have got to NO OBLIGATION needn’t don’t have to haven’t got to Applicants must include the names of two referees. PROHIBITION mustn’t can’t (be) not allowed to Source: http://www.doksinet I won’t come to lunch today. I have to/have got to finish this report by 400 You needn’t stay late. We have cancelled the meeting We don’t have to/haven’t got to pay our bill until the 30th. Passengers in the airport mustn’t leave their luggage unattended at any time. I’m sorry, but we can’t give/aren’t allowed to give you your bank balance by phone. TRICKY MODAL VERBS • • Have to/have got to, don’t have to: speaker is talking about obligations and prohibitions Must, need not, must not: speaker is giving an order or telling someone what to do + common in written language. “I have got to be in London by 3.30” “Then you must leave immediately, because the traffic is terrible.” • PAST OBLIGATION In my last job, I had to be at

the office by 8.00 am We didn’t have to work very hard, but we couldn’t leave the office without asking for permission. • Didn’t need to / needn’t have Because he was Spanish, he didn’t need to get a visa to visit Britain. (It wasn’t necessary, so he didn’t do it) We needn’t have hurried to Heathrow as the plane was late. (We did it, but it wasn’t necessary) • SPECULATING ABOUT THE PRESENT They must be having a party. They might be having problems with their fax machine. She can’t be looking for a new job already • SPECULATING ABOUT THE PAST He bought the shares when they were cheap and sold them at their peak, so he must have made a lot of money. (I’m sure he did) I am not sure why Mr. Janssen wasn’t at the meeting He might have been delayed at the airport. (Perhaps he was delayed) You can’t/couldn’t have seen Ms. Knowles at the sales conference, because she was in Mexico at the time. (I’m sure you didn’t see her) He arrived here this

morning. He must have been waiting for hours VERB + PREPOSTIONS account for apply for complain to depend on insist on pay for talk to wait for agree on belong to comply with hear about look at rely on think about write to agree with take care of consist of hear from look for succeed in think of The committee agreed on a joint statement. VERB + OBJECT + PREPOSITION ask s.o for blame s.o for congratulate s.o on divide s.th into borrow s.th from insure s.th against Source: http://www.doksinet invest s.th in spend s.th on protect s.o from supply s.o with provide s.o with thank s.o for Could you supply us with 200 units a month? SEPARABLE PHRASAL VERBS backup giveup clearup holdup closedown keepdown cutoff lookup fillin makeup putoff putthrough ringup takeover throwaway We had to put the meeting off. We had to put off the meeting INSEPARABLE PHRASAL VERBS back out of cut down on break down do without call on get on with carry on get over come across go through come down hold on

look after look into run into run out of take up turn up He will never get away with that. WORDORDER ADVERB SUBJECT ADVERB PREDICATE FREQUENCY/ MANNER OBJECT(S) us an offer in the meeting. They surprisingly made suddenly made us an offer I am rarely They have never done has always been working in the meeting yesterday. in the office after 7pm. before. TIME/PLACE / FREQUENCY Yesterday Since leaving university they he ADVERB MANNER, PLACE, TIME/FREQUENCY business with us for IBM. EXPRESSIONS OF FREQUENCY: • Normal position for adverbs of frequency is before a verb /after the first part of the verb • And AFTER am, is, are, was, were. • Normal position for expressions of definite frequency is at the end of the sentence. However for emphasis they can be put at the beginning of the sentence: We hold a meeting for shareholders once a year. Once a week I receive a printout of all transactions