Chemistry | High school » David Paterson - Feedback as a Tool to Improve Understanding in High School Chemistry Classes

Source: http://www.doksinet Chemistry Education in New Zealand August 2011 Feedback as a tool to improve understanding in high school chemistry classes David Paterson Head of Science, Cashmere High School (email: pt@cashmere.schoolnz) Recent educational research has highlighted the need for high quality feedback, a concept Hattie & Timperly (2007, p.81) describe as, “information provided by an agent regarding aspects of one’s performance or understanding” Many researchers have gone on to examine the most effective use of feedback (Nicol & MacFarlane, 2006; Gibbs & Simpson, 2004), making suggestions concerning why, how, and when feedback should be given. However, as both educational researchers and teachers acknowledge, it has been difficult to transfer research findings into classroom practice, owing to a range of factors: time constraints, teachers unable (or unwilling) to connect the research to their specific subject, school environment or age of students, and

conflicting advice from different authorities. This paper aims to help teachers by summarising research on feedback and offering practical suggestions for the use of feedback in High School chemistry classes. Why use feedback Teaching to improve understanding and develop new concepts is particularly challenging in a subject such as chemistry where students often struggle to make connections between macroscopic phenomena and their scientific explanations. A key aspect of constructivist learning theory is that teachers must find out what the learner already knows; then provide them with opportunities to construct new knowledge and concepts in order to explain the phenomena (Treagust & Duit, 2008). Teachers must therefore use some form of assessment to find out what their students know, then feedback ideas, strategies and suggestions to help improve understanding. Traditionally assessment has been about measuring performance in order to assign grades, rank students or place them in

appropriate classes (Moon, 2005). However, assessment comes in many forms, and can be formal or informal, formative or summative. It is how the teacher feeds back the information from assessments, of whatever kind, that is crucial. In a comprehensive review of factors affecting student achievement Hattie, Biggs & Purdie (1996) reported that the most powerful single influence is feedback. In a more detailed study Hattie (2007) proposed that it is when and how the teacher feeds back the information that determines the effectiveness of feedback on student learning. However, in order for teachers and students to use feedback to improve understanding, the first task is to set clear goals and expectations. Goal Setting In order to make progress towards learning goals students must be able to assess where they are now and decide on the strategies required to close the gap between current and desired performance or understanding. Consequently the setting of clear goals is vital. In High

School settings many goals are set by the teacher, based on curriculum or assessment requirements, for example, to explain why molecules adopt particular shapes, or to achieve a Merit level pass in an examination. Only if students understand these goals and take ownership of them will they be achieved (Nicol & MacFarlane, 2006). Therefore clarifying what constitutes a good explanation or a Merit level performance is essential. This can be done through detailed criteria or standards, and by providing examples of work that typify various levels of performance. Once clear goals are established any feedback from teachers needs to be specific to those goals and criteria if it is to be useful and acted upon (Crisp, 2007). When teachers make comments specific to tasks or processes related to the learning goals students know exactly what steps to take to improve or modify their understanding. They are more likely to use this information than if comments are vague or personal, such as

‘well done’, or even worse ‘poor effort’. Gibbs & Simpson (2004) note that motivation is a huge factor in determining if learning goals are accomplished and that feedback has a significant influence on motivation. When feedback comments relate to personal characteristics they can often be counter-productive, resulting in less effort and motivation, even when positive in tone. However, when feedback comments relate to a task, product or process, connected to achieving a goal, it is much more powerful (Hattie & Timperly, 2007), in both a cognitive and affective sense. For example, a student may answer a question by writing down most of the relevant facts, but without a logical structure. Specific feedback from the teacher might suggest using a graphic organiser to clarify their thinking, rather than just pointing out the deficiencies in their response. This offers the stu- 23 Source: http://www.doksinet Chemistry Eduction in New Zealand August 2011 dent a specific

strategy, enabling them to close the gap on their learning goals in future assessments. Timing of Feedback Timely use of feedback is just as important as the nature of the feedback itself, and this applies to teacher responses in class or to written comments on assignments. Moon (2005) points out that feedback should be used to guide teacher decision-making during instruction. When teachers collect information about where students are in their understanding of a particular topic they can adjust their teaching programme appropriately. This process can even be applied to an activity within a single lesson. For example when constructing Lewis diagrams to represent molecules in chemistry, students can be given mini-white boards and hold up their answers for the teacher to gain instant feedback. If most of the class grasp the concept quickly, more challenging examples can be set. Individuals with specific problems are easily identified and feedback can be immediately given to rectify the

problem. Internal Feedback Although external feedback from teachers is needed, the development of student internal feedback mechanisms such as the ability to self-reflect and self-assess is seen as even more important. Teaching students to think about their own learning and to select strategies that lead them to achieve their goals will bring rewards not only in specific subjects such as chemistry, but in truly life-long learning. Hattie & Timperly (2007) suggest that when students develop their own effective error detection skills this immediately improves task performance and also increases effort and motivation towards achieving their goals. In chemistry, students can be taught to pick up errors when balancing oxidation-reduction half equations, for example. This can be done by checking that half-equations are balanced first with respect to atoms, and then by charge. Initially students may need the external feedback from the teacher, but once they have confidence in their own

internal feedback mechanism they will be much better equipped to tackle future problems. Learning Environment For any feedback techniques to be effective there has to be a supportive learning environment where students feel able to ask for help and receive feedback. Hattie & Timperly (2007, p100) state that, “the climate of the classroom is critical”. When students know that feedback will be related to task or process and not directed at personal deficiencies, they will have the confidence to seek feedback and 24 accelerate their learning. The relationship between the teacher and student is crucial in establishing this positive climate and teachers must become skilled in judging the character of their students to tailor their comments appropriately. A humorous or sarcastic feedback comment could be received as positive and motivating to one student but negative and demeaning to another. Two techniques that teachers can use to promote supportive learning environments and

strengthen good feedback practices are using co-operative learning activities and through assessment by portfolios. Co-operative Learning Co-operative learning is a way to provide more opportunity for self- and peer-reflection, a recognised way to increase feedback. In a meta-analysis on the effects of co-operative learning in high school chemistry courses, Bowen (2000) found that not only did student achievement improve, but also there were positive effects on persistence and attitudes in chemistry. Gibbs & Simpson (2004) support this view by stating that feedback has a major influence on students’ self-efficacy, and this is related to effort and persistence with tasks. For co-operative learning to be successful a supportive environment must be created, and rich feedback is needed to enable groups to work well together, even before any academic learning can take place. Portfolios The collection of student work in a portfolio is another strategy used to more closely link

assessment to learning, and to better represent students’ conceptual understandings and science process skills. Phelps, LaPoerte & Mahood (1997) describe one method of assembling a portfolio of student work in chemistry. Students complete a variety of tasks, which each have a clear set of requirements for exemplary work, negotiated through dialogue between the teacher and students. It is this dialogue that Nicol & MacFarlane (2006) identify as one of the key features of effective feedback and which, at the same time, establishes a supportive classroom atmosphere. Student work is compared to the criteria during formative assessments, and opportunities are given to improve the quality of the work before final submission. This enables the teacher to clarify issues of confusion while the students are still working on a concept, hence providing timely feedback. Another chemistry teacher using portfolios described his system as “a combination of assessment and conferencing”

(Adamchik, 1996, p.529) He used rubrics and goal setting to promote clear feed- Source: http://www.doksinet Chemistry Education in New Zealand August 2011 back to students, both key factors in supplying effective feedback. Huba & Freed (2000) show there are many techniques available to make the quality of work required more explicit by using rubrics. However, one of the problems acknowledged is the extra time required for the teacher to do justice to each student’s portfolio and a suggested way to alleviate this is to train students in peer- and self-assessment. Conflicting feedback messages The level of detail about feedback now available from educational research can make it difficult for classroom teachers to know what to do for the best. For example, many researchers advise that feedback should be directed at the task and detail steps to improve. However, Hattie & Timperly (2007) caution that simple feedback is more effective than complex, and that feedback is heeded

when directed at faulty understanding rather than lack of knowledge. In chemistry this indicates that going over tests in detail after handing back student work may be counter-productive, especially if there are big gaps in student responses. Rather, teachers should aim to identify these gaps in student understanding and address them through targeted teaching of those concepts. Another well accepted feedback principle is that it should be as close to the learning as possible. Again, more detailed work by Hattie & Timperly (2007) indicates that this is not always the case. More difficult tasks that require significant thinking and processing are better supported by delayed feedback and the opportunity for self-reflection. Conclusion There is no doubt that the use of timely and effective feedback is a powerful tool to help move student understanding and achievement to higher levels. The challenge for teachers is to construct activities and learning environments that maximise

formative assessment and feedback opportunities in line with the best practice revealed by recent educational research. Providing and receiving feedback requires much skill on the part of both teachers and students, and necessitates a co-operative and supportive classroom environment. When all these factors fall into place the results are extremely rewarding, with students easily more grasping difficult concepts in chemistry, and becoming confident, life-long learners with the skills required for their place in the twenty-first century. References Adamchik, C.F (1996) The design and assessment of chemistry portfolios. Journal of Chemical Education, 73 (6), 528-531. Bowen, C. (2000) A quantitative literature review of cooperative learning effects on high school and college chemistry achievement. Journal of Chemical Education, 77 (1), 116-119 Crisp, B. (2007) Is it worth the effort? How feedback influences students’ subsequent submission of assessable work. Assessment &

Evaluation in Higher Education, 32 (5), 571-581 Gibbs, G. & Simpson, C (2004) Conditions under which assessment supports student’s learning. Learning and Teaching in Higher Education, Issue 1, 3-31. Hattie, J., Biggs, J, & Purdie, N (1996) Effects of learning skills interventions on student learning: A metaanalysis Review of Educational Research, 66 (2), 99–136. Hattie, J., & Timperly, H (2007) The power of feedback Review of Educational Research, 77, 81-112. Huba, M. & Freed, J (2000) Learner-centered assessment on college campuses: Shifting the focus from teaching to learning. Massachusetts, USA: Pearson Education Company. Moon, T. (2005) The role of assessment for differentiation Theory Into Practice, 44 (3), 226-133. Nicol, D. & MacFarlane, D (2006) Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: a model and seven principles of good feedback practice. Studies in Higher Education, 31 (2), 199-218. Phelps, A., LaPoerte, M, & Mahood, A (1997) Portfolio

assessment in high school chemistry: One teacher’s guidelines. Journal of Chemical Education, 74 (5), 528-531. Treagust, D., & Duit, R (2008) Conceptual change: A discussion of theoretical, methodological and practical challenges for science education. Cultural Studies of Science Education, 3, 297-328. 25