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Source: http://www.doksinet We Wish You a Merry Consumption How American Mass Consumerism has Changed the Celebration of Holidays Josephine Titia Kay MA Thesis, American Studies Program, Utrecht University 9 July 2009 Source: http://www.doksinet 2 Table of Contents Chapter One 4 Introduction Chapter Two 9 American Mass Consumerism - 2.1 American Mass Consumerism 2.2 American Mass Consumerism Comes to Europe - 2.3 Advertising Chapter Three 35 The Consumption of Holidays - 3.1 The Mass Consumption of Holidays 3.2 Religious Holidays: Christmas and Easter 3.3 Holidays Created by Mass Consumer Industries: Valentine’s Day and Mother’s Day Chapter Four 58 Conclusion Source: http://www.doksinet 3 There’s a simple way in which to serve the country you love best, Just read and listen to the U.S Government’s Request; By taking the Consumer’s Pledge – the best way to invest, in Peace and Victory. Chorus: I Will be a wise consumer, Gladly do so with good humor, That’s

the way to win the sooner To Peace and Victory! You can eat fresh fruits and vegetables, and thus save tons of tin, Do not be extravagant and waste, for wasting is a sin, And budget your allowances for food so we can win, the Peace and Victory. Chorus (Repeat) Take the best care of your wearables, and mend them when they tear, You can swap the children’s outgrown things for things that they can wear, You can be your own repairman when there’s something to repair, For Peace and Victory. Consumer’s Pledge Song 1 1 “Consumer’s Pledge Song,” June 23, 1942, Box 4, Folder 38, p.5 Source: http://www.doksinet 4 1. Introduction Getting what we want, when we want it, has never been so simple. Getting the latest must-haves is on most people’s minds as they roam the shopping streets – often purchasing these must-haves without hesitation. What makes these goods the newest trends, and why certain people feel they need to have these materialistic products, is a phenomenon that

is widely debated. This belief or feeling people have, of thinking that they actually need certain items to become happy, fulfilled and whole as a person is influenced by a multitude of factors. For example, many have accused major multinational companies of exploiting consumers’ vulnerabilities by convincing them that they need various luxury products. Furthermore, clever, and highly persuasive, promotional campaigns by top flight advertising agencies, on behalf of these large conglomerates, helps to nurture an almost hypnotic belief in people’s minds that certain luxury items are a lifestyle necessity. Because of these various factors, the line between ‘need’ and ‘want’ has become increasingly blurred and many people are unable to tell the difference between actual greed and need anymore. Products that were once labelled a luxury article are no longer purely available to the rich and famous. In The Rise of Mass Consumption Societies, Matsuyama discusses how “roughly

speaking, the mass consumption society can be defined as a society in which not a few individuals, nor a thin upper class, but the majority of families enjoy the benefits of increased productivity and constantly expand their range of consumer goods”. 2 According to many scholars, the driving force behind these various factors, which contribute to the rise in mass consumerism, is America. Americanization is a frequently discussed topic in much literature. It appears that Americanization often has a negative connotation attached to it. The fear of America, and its potential power over the rest of the world, is felt Kiminori Matsuyama. “The Rise of Mass Consumption Societies,” Journal of Political Economy 110, No. 5 (2002) 1036 2 Source: http://www.doksinet 5 by many. Various scholars have discussed the different aspects of Americanization and the consequences it has for the world and themselves. In Advertising, Mass Consumption and Capitalism Alberto Bisin and Jess Benhabib

explore the influence America has on consumption throughout the world. They define the prevailing culture of consumption as being one of “manipulation of preferences” exercised by American companies. 3 However, these scholars and many others have also taken the many further factors into consideration that can be attributed to Americanization. Europe’s acceptance of America’s influence in every aspect of their lives such as culture, entertainment, consumption and politics has been analyzed as a part of the discussion about America’s role in the world. Through research many scholars have found the scepticism towards America to be unfounded, or at the very least, exaggerated. In Americanization for Historians Richard Kuisel calls for the term “cultural imperialism” to be discarded as it “emphasizes imposition and coercion” and “assumes audience passivity”. Kuisel postulates that Americanization needs to be accepted as a historical process, which cannot be understood

if it is treated as a manifestation of “some loathsome imperialism.” 4 Furthermore, during a conference at the German Historical Institute, Rob Kroes discussed the need for the focus in research to be on the “receivers” instead of the “senders” of American culture. The freedom of reception and the freedom to re-semanticize and to re-contextualize should be taken into account when exploring America’s influence on the rest of the world. The claim that America is solely responsible for Americanization is too simplistic. The role of the receiver is therefore a key indicator of the extent to which Americanization takes place. Kroes finds that “the critique of Americanization Alberto Bisin and Jess Benhabib, “Advertising, Mass Consumption and Capitalism,” (Manuscript, NYU, 2002), 1-38. 1 4 Richard Kuisel, “Americanization for Historians,” Diplomatic History 24, No. 3 (2000), 509 3 Source: http://www.doksinet 6 is too broad, exaggerating America’s role in areas

where in fact it was caught up in historic transformations much like other countries were.” 5 Various scholars have explored the influence of Americanization on consumerism in the United States and Europe. After the Second World War there was a major rise in mass consumerism. American companies were quick to notice the demand for luxury goods in America. Consequently, Europe also produced demand for these luxury goods. Having suffered during the Second World War, many Europeans felt they deserved a bit of luxury in their lives and quickly turned to consuming for comfort. Companies in America plotted this trend, and started to produce many goods en masse, which subsequently led to mass consumerism. In Irresistible Empire Victoria De Grazia investigates American mass consumerism’s influence on Europe. She states that many Europeans wanted to obtain the American standard of living - which they perceived as a higher standard of living than the Europeans had experienced for many years.

To attain this American way of life mass consumerism had to become a part of their every day lives. 6 Many things changed in America and in Europe because of this rise in mass consumerism. One element which has been significantly influenced by mass consumerism, is the celebration of holidays in the USA and Europe. Leigh E. Schmidt explores how various holidays in America have changed over time. He analyzes how merchants began to see the holidays as an opportunity to earn more money. Whereas holidays used to be seen as an interruption of business, it had become “an opportunity for ‘special sales and attractive displays’.” Schmidt focuses on how holidays changed over time and how “the very rituals and materials of modern American celebrations - both religious and civic – would be dramatically refashioned.” 7 Rob Kroes, “American Empire and Cultural Imperialism: A View From the Receiving End” (paper presented at the German Historical Institute, Washington D.C, USA,

March 25-27, 1999). 6 Victoria De Grazia, Irresistible Empire: America’s Advance Through Twentieth-Century Europe (Massachusetts: The Belknap Press, 2005). 7 Leigh E. Schmidt, Consumer Rites: The Buying and Selling of American Holidays (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1996), 37. 5 Source: http://www.doksinet 7 This thesis will explore the key role America played – and still plays in the process of mass consumerism which has spread throughout the world, with the main focus on how this has influenced the celebration of holidays in America and Europe. An attempt will be made to prove that American mass consumerism has changed the way Americans, and Europeans, celebrate holidays. However, the degree to which this change takes place and how much influence it has exerts on America and Europe is debatable. Thus, the focus of the analysis will be on the reception of the changes taking place. Whereas the previously mentioned literature focused mainly on the actual factual

changes, this thesis will also explore the acceptance of the transformations taking place in the American and European consumerist culture. Therefore, the thesis statement will be: “American mass consumerism has changed the way Americans and Europeans celebrate holidays.” As mentioned previously, this is a relevant statement because it is important to try and quantify the effects American mass consumerism has had on both Europe, and North America. Various questions will be explored, such as, does American mass consumerism really have an influence on the celebration of European holidays, and if so, in what way? How do advertising companies have a propagandistic role, when promoting certain ‘seasonal’ products in Europe and America? How is this American influence on holidays perceived by European consumers? What do these changes mean for Europe and America? Have American and European values, which used to surround holidays such as Christmas, really changed because of mass

consumerism? Is the mass consumerism of holidays not just another inevitable development in American and European culture, and is the rejection of mass consumerism not just a form of negative anticipation towards something new? Is the want for mass produced consumer goods at holidays really unreasonable? To focus on something as specific as the celebration of holidays in Europe, will prove useful to illuminate the discussion about the Americanization of Europe through mass consumerism, with a clear example. Source: http://www.doksinet 8 Therefore, this thesis will fill an important gap in historical literature. It will shed light on the influence mass consumerism has had on European and American holidays and will explore the reception of these changes. Furthermore, advertising is a major factor which fuels mass consumerism. This thesis will therefore briefly explore the importance and implications of advertising. The main time frame that will be examined, is the years following the

Second World War. During this period there was a large rise in the demand for mass produced goods, which necessitated a rise in goods production, which in turn led to a rise in mass consumerism. The holidays will be narrowed down to Christmas, Easter, Mother’s Day and Valentine’s Day. Christmas and Easter are significant holidays because these are the two holidays where the impact of mass consumerism is most visible. Mother’s Day and Valentine’s Day are interesting phenomena because they were partly created by the American mass consumerism industry. Throughout the four chapters of this thesis, when and why American mass consumerism reached its peak, will be discovered. Furthermore, how that surge migrated to Europe and how the Americans influenced European spending and attitudes towards products will be explained. Holiday specific trends are examined, with particular focus on the gift giving rituals of both Easter, and of course, Christmas. Specialized occasions such as

Mother’s Day and Valentine’s Day are also reviewed – along with the resulting specific ‘manufactured’ gift market, and the pressure the buying public are exposed to by advertising agencies to entice them to purchase the must-have products. Source: http://www.doksinet 9 Chapter Two American Mass Consumerism Source: http://www.doksinet 10 2.1 American Mass Consumerism Mass consumerism is a phenomenon which has become part of most Americans every day lives. It is something that is so engrained into the United States’ culture it is hardly even noticed anymore. Every product imaginable is available in bulk and for an affordable price (to most). When Americans are hungry and do not feel like cooking a meal or going to the supermarket, it will only take a matter of minutes before they are the proud owner of the newest Big Mac Menu, preferably ‘supersized’, with an extra side of fries, please. Whilst scoffing down their Big Mac and dipping their fries in ketchup, they

are wearing the latest must-have pair of jeans. They have driven to the McDonalds in their newest car and get their cash, to pay for the meal, out of their newly acquired designer bag, with purse to match. Getting what you want, when you want it, has never been so easy. Most Americans are born into this mass consumerism society, whether they want to be, or not. Their parents teach them through their own spending habits that consuming is a part of everyday life, and that it is the most normal and acceptable practice in American culture. These parents have learned this from their parents, and these parent’s children, in turn, will continue to teach their own children that consuming is the norm. When a child in present day America wants something, they will probably get it. Gigantic toy stores are found on every street corner, filled to the brim with the latest gadgets for children. The choices are endless, and one could spend entire days (and salaries) in these shops. Therefore,

because the practice of consuming is so engrained in American society, it will continue to spread from generation to generation, and in the future most people wont even think twice about consumption and the role it plays in their every day lives. The question arises - when did this explosion of mass consumerism start? To understand the boom of mass consumerism in America, we need to take a look back in history. During the 1930’s many Americans suffered from the Great Depression, which swept the nation. It was a period in which “hard times forced many Americans to struggle to find and keep work, feed their Source: http://www.doksinet 11 families, and to hold on to their homes or pay their rent”. 8 Before the Great Depression Americans lived a life of abundance. America lived in an age of confidence. However, there was a kernel of doubt to be found in many American’s minds. “Despite the Promethean optimism of the official culture, a sense of human finitude persisted among

the more comfortably situated as well as those on the margins of society”. It appeared that “Americans, even the educated and affluent, could not remain at ease in the Zion of modern industrial society”. A feeling of overcivilization arose amongst Americans, “Europeans and Americans alike began to recognize that the triumph of modern culturehad promoted a spreading sense of moral impotence and spiritual sterility - a feeling that life had become not only overcivilized but also curiously unreal”. 9 Anti-modernism swept the nation, as Americans questioned the new modernity and affluence they were experiencing. 10 When the Great Depression struck the nation Americans had to give up much of the luxury they had lived in. American consumers could no longer live a life of abundance and had to turn their backs on the culture of consumerism that they had gotten accustomed to. However, a paradox arose, as “increasingly they (consumers) were being viewed by policymakers - and were

thinking of themselves - as consumers, as purchasers of goods in the marketplace”. Because of the economic crisis the government tried to promote consumerism to aid the recovery of America, which was suffering so gravely because of the depression. Consumers were put on a pedestal and were prompted to spend as much money as possible, to save the country. “Purchaser consumers were viewed as contributing to the larger society more by exercising purchasing power than through asserting themselves politically”. 11 Lizbeth Cohen. A Consumers’ Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America (New York: Vintage Books, 2003) 9 T.J Jackson Lears No Place of Grace: Antimodernism and the Transformation of American Culture 1880-1920 (New York: Pantheon Books, 1981) 10 For more information Ibid. 4-65 11 Lizbeth Cohen. A Consumers’ Republic 8 Source: http://www.doksinet 12 In the nineteenth century, the concept of “the masses” arose. “With nineteenth-century

industrialization and urbanization, processes that drew people together in large aggregates as a matter of course, the masses became a permanent presence in social life”. Because of this phenomenon, it was easier for the government to reach out to this large group in one go. Because the masses were easily reached as a whole, the government managed to spread the idea that the consumer was king. The government could reach the masses through modern media technologies, which were available at the time. As Buck-Morss finds, “modern media technologies are indispensable here, not only for the manipulation of the masses, but for mass solidarity in a positive sense”. 12 Because of this, the public was no longer a passive organ, but could actually play an important role in consumerism, through their mass force. Therefore, the government recognized that consumers could contribute to the rebuilding of the American economy, and “when in 1933, Congress passed the National Industrial Recovery

Act, it authorized this keystone program of the first New Deal to include representatives of the ‘consuming republic’ alongside business and labor”. The average consumer now meant more to America than ever before. Because the consuming public had now gained an important role within the American government and for businesses, many consumers were able to influence new policies. Some code authorities, such as the Consumer Advisory Board (hereafter, CAB), now had ‘average’ consumers as part of their member database. This “gave consumers a legitimate voice in the federal government’s efforts to foster recovery”. On top of this, “after angry consumer advocates descended upon Washington to complain about the inadequacy of the CAB, a Consumer’s Counsel was added as well”. 13 American consumers now had a voice within the American government, as well as in relation to American businesses. Because consumers had gained such an important role, they could now push through 12

13 Susan Buck-Morss. Dreamworld and Catastrophe (MIT Press, 2000) Lizbeth Cohen. A Consumers’ Republic Source: http://www.doksinet 13 their preferences and wishes, meaning American businesses and the government had to listen. An important key-player in the restructuring of the American government, which enabled consumers to play a key-role, was Franklin Roosevelt. The New Deal fuelled the idea of the consumer as an important element for the recovery of the economy. The capitalist system had to remain the one to adhere to, especially as Americans feared the red threat of communism. Therefore, the consumer was seen as the main, capitalist tool, to aid America’s recovery. As Lizabeth Cohen observes, “attending to the consumer also conformed to another prevailing tendency of the New Deal, the commitment to resuscitate a severely damaged economy without jettisoning the basic tenets of capitalism. Empowering the consumer seemed to many New Dealers a way of enhancing the public’s

stake in society and the economy while still preserving the free enterprise system”. 14 Franklin Roosevelt believed the consumer would take the main stage and the producer would take more of a backseat within American society, as he said during one of his speeches during his Presidential campaign: “I believe we are at the threshold of a fundamental change in our popular economic thoughtand that in the future we are going to think less about the producer and more about the consumer”. Years to come, Franklin Roosevelt’s administration would be seen as the period in which “the idea of consumer representation came”. 15 When the Second World War broke out, America still found itself in uncertainty. 16 Many American troops were sent to Europe to fight, and many lives were lost. However, America did manage to benefit from the war economically and psychologically. America’s economy started recovering because of the work opportunities the war created. The United States got Lizbeth

Cohen. A Consumers’ Republic Ibid. 16 Christina D. Romer “The Great Crash and the Onset of the Great Depression,” Quarterly Journal of Economics 150, No. 3 (1990) 14 15 Source: http://www.doksinet 14 involved in war production, which created many jobs in factories. Because of the rising job opportunities a sense of patriotism came back to many Americans, as they now felt they were doing something to aid the recovery of their country’s economy. However, consumption rates did not increase immediately. The idea of consuming as if nothing had happened did not occur to many Americans. Furthermore, during the war there were hardly any products to consume, as the government controlled production. This meant that almost all production went to the war effort, which meant the production of consumer goods was scarce. Consumers felt that in times of such hardship, they should be careful about their spending patterns. Many advertising companies were careful about how they advertised

their products too. The Listerine toothpaste ads were compiled in such a manner that they accentuated the money the consumer would save buy buying their product, in stead of the actual money they would have to spend to obtain the product. 17 However, the government was determined to “prolong and enhance the economic recovery brought on by the war, lest the crippling depression of the 1930s return”, through the subtle promotion of consuming, which increased after the Second World War. 18 So, the focus of the government was on the mass consumer market. They believed that to ensure prosperity in America, they had to promote consumerism. “A wide range of economic interests and players all came to endorse the centrality of mass consumption to a successful reconversion from war to peace”. Many companies in America took advantage of the situation after the war, and used their factories and assembly lines, which had previously been used for military production, to produce goods for the

mass market, such as cars and appliances. However, “if encouraging a mass consumer economy seemed to make good economic sense for the nation, it For more information on advertising during the Great Depression see: Roland Marchand. Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (University of California Press, 1985) 18 Lizbeth Cohen. A Consumers’ Republic 17 Source: http://www.doksinet 15 still required extensive efforts to get Americans to cooperate” 19. There was a large demand for consumer goods and housing after the war, but many Americans were still cautious about spending their savings, which they had accumulated during the war, so shortly after the Great Depression. “Ordinary Americans wouldn’t spend money on luxuriesunless they were disabused of long-held ideas that privileged a life of self-denial over a life of indulgence”. 20 In an attempt to try and change the minds of Americans, different devices, such as advertising, the media,

government agencies and labor unions, were put into place to convince them that spending money on goods for themselves was “not a personal indulgence”. Instead they promoted spending as being “a civic responsibility designed to improve the living standards of all Americans” According to the government and economists, the new consumer culture would be “a critical part of a prosperity producing cycle of expanded consumer demand fuelling greater production, thereby creating more well-paying jobs and in turn more affluent consumers capable of stoking the economy with their purchases”. With this new message, the government set out to change the attitudes of many Americans and influenced them by claiming it was their personal responsibility to make America a more desirable place to live for every American. “Wherever one looked in the aftermath of war, one found a vision of postwar America where the general good was best served not by frugality or even moderation, but by

individuals pursuing personal wants in a flourishing mass consumption marketplace”. 21 It therefore appears that America had become a consumer culture, which surprising to many people now, was actually partially promoted by the government through the government agencies, as mentioned earlier. Nowadays consuming is seen by many people as a product of large Lizbeth Cohen. “A Consumer’s Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America,” Journal of Consumer Research 31 (2004) 20 Joshua Zeitz. Flapper: A Madcap story of Sex, Style, Celebrity, and the Women Who Made America Modern (NY: Three Rivers Press, 2006) 21 Lizbeth Cohen. A Consumer’s Republic 19 Source: http://www.doksinet 16 businesses and advertising companies, manipulating unknowing consumers. To Arthur Asa Berger consumer cultures “are those in which there has been a great expansionof commodity production, leading to societies full of consumer goods and services and places where these consumer goods

can be purchased”. He then continues to state that “the ‘game’ people play is ‘get as much as you can’”. Mass consumer culture is therefore more than just the act of consuming certain products. It also encompasses the psychological aspect, of how people feel the need to consume, to belong to, or be above, a certain group. “Success is defined as being the person ‘who has the most toys’ This leads to a lust for consuming products-and conspicuously displaying them-as a means of demonstrating that one is a success and, ultimately, that one is worthy”. 22 When consumption reaches this point, the line between need and want gets blurred. People start consuming certain products to belong to certain groups, and to make themselves feel better. As Matsuyama (2002) puts it, “the very notion of necessities and luxuries has changed” (p. 1038) in America. Almost every household in America is the owner of a refrigerator or a telephone. These used to be luxury goods, but in

American society today, these have become necessities to most people. This has led to the division of wealth within American society to start to change. As Matsuyama observes: “Throughout the course of human history, poverty has been the rule, riches the exception. Societies in the past were called affluent when their ruling classes lived in abundance and luxury. Even in the rich countries of the past, the great majority of people struggled for mere subsistence. Today in this country minimum standards of nutrition, housing, and clothing are assured, not for all, but for the majority. Beyond these minimum needs, such former luxuries as homeownership, durable goods, travel, recreation, and Arthur A. Berger Ads, Fads, and Consumer Culture: Advertising’s Impact on American Character and Society (Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., 2000) 22 Source: http://www.doksinet 17 entertainment are no longer restricted to a few. The broad masses participate in enjoying all

these things and generate most of the demand for them”. 23 With this change in the structure of American society, comes change in the way we consume. Because a larger number of Americans is able to afford more luxury goods, more of these goods need to be produced, which leads to mass production. Many companies have realized this, and produce goods in large quantities, not only to have enough supply to meet the demand, but also because producing goods in large quantities is more cost efficient. This in turn causes goods to be cheaper, which means people will consume more. A pattern tends to occur in which the market for each consumer good takes off, with each take off “followed one by the other”. This pattern is named “flying geese” by Matsuyama and can be seen in figure 1. Figure 1. Matsuyama (2002), p 1037 Furthermore, as mentioned earlier, the “the notion of necessities and luxuries has changed”. Nowadays, that which is perceived as a luxury good or a necessity good

depends on how much money a household has to spend. Because the purchasing power of most Americans has risen and many goods produced en masse are a lot cheaper than they used to be, many more goods are perceived as being a necessity, whereas they used to be seen as a luxury. “As a household’s income goes up, a consumer good changes from a luxury Kiminori Matsuyama. “The Rise of Mass Consumption Societies,” Journal of Political Economy 110, No. 5 (2002) 23 Source: http://www.doksinet 18 to an amenity and, finally, to a necessity”. Another factor plays an important role, according to Matsuyama, in the way we mass consume. This is that goods become affordable to more people, because when a good is purchased by a high-income family, its price is reduced. This is due to the rise in the amount the product is produced, because high-income families cause a demand for the product. When the demand is high, a company can mass produce the good, which causes its price to drop. This

then in turn makes the good available to lower income households who previously were unable to afford the good. This is called the ‘trickle-down process’, and this helps an industry to take off. 24 This trickle-down process also has another side to it, namely the ‘trickle-up process’. When the price of the good drops because of the higherincome families purchasing this good, the higher-income families can now afford the next item on their ‘shopping list’. “Because of this trickle-up process, productivity gains in one industry lead to productivity gains in the next”. 25 With all these elements in place, products quickly become necessities, instead of luxuries, for families from different levels of income groups: leading to even higher levels of mass consumption. And so, the rise in mass consumption continues in the United States, leading more and more products to become mass-consumed goods. Although this phenomenon of mass consumption if often believed to be a solely

American one, more and more mass produced goods are produced for, and by, overseas consumers in Europe. 24 25 Kiminori Matsuyama. The Rise of Mass Consumption Societies Kiminori Matsuyama. The Rise of Mass Consumption Societies Source: http://www.doksinet 19 2.2 American Mass Consumerism Comes to Europe During the years after the Second World War it was clear that America had left its footprints on Europe’s soil. American movies, movie stars, foods, electronics, cars and many other American products were popular with many Europeans. Because of the rapid spread of mass consumerism in America, products were now being produced in large quantities, and many of these products were now being exported to Europe. Also, as in America, after the Second World War, many Europeans felt they deserved some luxury in their lives, and started spending. The Second World War, therefore, is a notable period, as many Europeans had lost so much during the war that it was now time to get a bit of

their old lives back. Large manufacturers popped up all over Europe, selling their latest must-have products to Europeans. Most European adults wanted to smoke cool Marlboro cigarettes whilst sipping Coca-Cola and every European child wanted to play with the newest American dolls and toy cars. From the Second World War onwards, the logo for goods produced in American factories might as well have changed from ‘Made in America’ to ‘Made in America for Europe’. Source: http://www.doksinet 20 Because of American mass consumerism coming to Europe, many Europeans felt they were being overwhelmed by all the influence America was having on their country and themselves as individuals. However, it was clear that “at bottom, imitating the Americans involved more than the purchase of a refrigerator and a new car, or a pair of blue jeans and a black leather jacket”. 26 Being Americanized involved much more than just the products America sold in Europe. Much of it had to do with the

psychological influence it had on Europeans. They themselves accepted Americanism and let it into their lives with little hesitation. “Whatever the words one uses at the point of reception, words such as hybridization or creolization, current views agree on a freedom of reception, a freedom to re-semanticize and recontextualize meaningful messages reaching audiences across national and cultural borders”. 27 Therefore, it was also Europe’s own decision to let Americans ‘cross the borders’ and occupy an important position in many Europeans’ lives. Because of America’s crucial role during the Second World War, many Europeans looked up to America and saw the United States as a place of prosperity and happiness. It was a logical step to link this prosperity and happiness to the developing consumerism in the United States. Furthermore, “the emergence of consumerism in postwar Europe coincided with a substantial growth in personal and disposable income”. Not only did

Europeans have more money to spend, Europeans were also willing to go into debt to buy the luxury goods they wanted. “Western Europeans began to spend less of their money on basic necessities like food, clothing and shelter, and proportionally more on such ‘luxuries’ as new furniture, electrical appliances, crystal and china, high- Richard Pells. Not Like Us: How Europeans have loved, hated and transformed American culture since World War II (NY: Basic Books, 1997), 195. 27 Rob Kroes, “American Empire and Cultural Imperialism: A View From the Receiving End” (paper presented at the German Historical Institute, Washington D.C, USA, March 25-27, 1999). 26 Source: http://www.doksinet 21 fidelity phonographs and records, television sets, and leisure wear-most of these made in America”. 28 Many scholars like to call America’s influence in Europe and the rest of the world, ‘cultural imperialism’. However, Richard Kuisel finds that “we need to discard cultural

imperialism” because it has a negative connotation. It also “emphasizes imposition and coercion; assumes audience passivity; postulates cultural coherence for both exporters and importers; and anticipates global homogeneity as the outcome”. Many Europeans have accepted Americanization with open arms and would not want to give it back. Americanization is not something Americans set out to do, per se It is not as if they hoped to conquer Europe by imposing mass consumerism on them. “Americanization is a historical process, but it will not yield its secrets if we treat it as a manifestation of some loathsome ‘imperialism’”. 29 However, it is obvious that America does have a lot of power when it comes to consumerism, which must not be forgotten. Much of their dominance on the market place has to do with their market control. Because America has the power to put a product on the market that is distributed across the world, the choices a consumer has enlarges; however, the

consumer’s choice also becomes limited at the same time. For example, if the cheapest soft drink available is Coca-Cola, it is tempting to buy this product, instead of a European brand of soft drink. However, the reason why a CocaCola drink might be cheaper than other European soft drink brands is due to people actually purchasing this product in the first place, which in turn leads to higher demands, causing there to be a rise in productivity, meaning the product will eventually become cheaper. If the product was European, and many people purchased this product, the product would become cheaper too and people would choose this product over another, more expensive, product. Therefore, it seems that “it is a common fallacy in much of the critique of Richard Pells. Not Like Us: How Europeans have loved, hated and transformed American culture since World War II, 196. 29 Richard Kuisel. “Americanization for Historians,” Diplomatic History 24, No3 (2000) 28 Source:

http://www.doksinet 22 Americanization to blame America for trends and developments that would have occurred anyway, even in the absence of America”. 30 One of the key elements which played a large role in the spread of mass consumerism through Europe, was the wish of many Europeans to want to be more like Americans. As mentioned above, America was an example to many Europeans because of the lifestyle they manifested to the rest of Europe after the Second World War. Europeans saw this, and wanted to be more like them, in the hope to find the same “standard of living” they portrayed, after the war. As De Grazia finds, many Europeans saw “the high standard of living as a uniquely American invention whose universal spread was at once economically advantageous to American trade, a force for world order and political democracy, and generative of no significant negative effects, at least none regarded as pernicious enough to excite probing discussion”. 31 America promoted itself

in every field, such as commerce and on the workfloor. Europeans were susceptible to this image the United States promoted, and wanted a piece of it. American mass consumerism did not only have an effect on the way Europeans changed their consumer patterns. Because more affluent Europeans started buying American products, many of these products became more affordable to less affluent Europeans as well. This led lowerincome households to have more spending power, which meant that they could now also purchase these mass produced goods imported from America. Because of this consumerism, class divisions in Europe became blurred. However, “much of this change was stylistic, rather than ideological; one might buy a washing machine without deserting the Labour Party”. Because lower-income households could now afford many of the same goods as higher-income households, such as cars, kitchen appliances and clothes, Rob Kroes. American Empire and Cultural Imperialism: A View From the

Receiving End Victoria De Grazia. Irresistible Empire: America’s Advance Through Twentieth-Century Europe (Massachusetts: The Belknap Press, 2005), 76. 30 31 Source: http://www.doksinet 23 Western Europe became a “radically different place in the 1960s and 1970s than it had been before the war”. 32 The demography of many countries in Europe changed too. Whereas many Europeans used to live on the land and were farmers, by this time they were moving to, or near, the cities, to enjoy the new life America offered them. Because of this however, Europe did gain a new type of class A permanent underclass was created, for example in France, like in America, that consisted of the very poor immigrants from Africa and the Middle East and refugees from bordering countries, escaping their own problems and civil wars. “These new forms of ethnic and economic stratification were hardly unique to France and America. In every country in Western Europe by the 1980s, the lines between the

middle class and the poor had become more visible and more intractable”. 33 The United States had created a growing middle class through mass consumerism, which spread to Europe. Consumption had now become a way of ensuring access to the American dream and to an expanding middle class in Europe as well, as in America. 34 “The great boom brought a new consumer revolution that deepened the split between Western and Eastern Europe”. So, now not only were there divisions within countries, but Europe itself was being divided into different levels of class, which is still evident today. As Duignan finds, “in the East consumption remained restricted, linked overwhelmingly to the political requirements of the nomenclatura (higher ranks of the party, state, military, and cultural bureaucracy)”. Therefore, Eastern Europe was left behind, whilst Western Europe was swept off its feet by the United States. 35 In the West “markets expanded for all manner of consumer goods”. In the

United States many products were being produced for the European market, which had already proven to be a success in America. However, Richard Pells. Not Like Us: How Europeans have loved, hated and transformed American culture since World War II, 197. 33 Ibid. 197 34 M. Davis Prisoners of the American Dream: Politics and Economics in the History of the US Working Class (New York: Verso, 1999) 35 P. Duignan The Rebirth of the West: The Americanization of the Democratic World, 1945-1958 (Cambridge, USA: Blackwell Publishers, 1992), 505. 32 Source: http://www.doksinet 24 because of the variation between European countries, considering tastes, national styles and cultures, America had to find a way to produce goods which would appeal to every country within Europe. As “the US had long provided a huge market where customers broadly shared similar tastes”, this became a new challenge for the American industries. They managed to overcome this minor problem by producing durable goods

which were “valued for their utility more than their appearance”, and it appeared that “consumer resistance in Europe was no greater than in the US” when it came to such products. 36 Another important factor, which played a large role in convincing Europeans to embrace American mass consumerism, was the Marshall Plan. From June 1948 onwards, America started sending “grants, credits, and supplies” to Europe, “under the terms of the European Recovery Act”. This obviously aided the trust of many Europeans in America, and led them to believe that the Americans were there only to do good and help Europeans. The Marshall Plan showed Europeans how much America had to offer, and convinced them that the American way of life was the one to aspire. Harry S Truman spoke often of the importance of ‘the standard of living’, and it “became a central motif of successive State of the Union speeches”. 37 Of course this ideology rubbed off on the Europeans, leading them to want

the same, and aim for a higher standard of living themselves. Now that the American way of thinking was starting to spread across Europe, partially through the Marshall Plan, it was impossible to stay behind, and almost every country within the EU adhered to America’s example. One of the ‘leading’ countries in Europe, when it comes to embracing American mass consumerism practices, is the United Kingdom. To understand the warm welcome Britain gave to America, a short look back in history is necessary. When Sir Winston Churchill was appointed prime P. Duignan The Rebirth of the West: The Americanization of the Democratic World, 1945-1958, 506. 37 For more information see Victoria De Grazia. Irresistible Empire: America’s Advance Through Twentieth-Century Europe 36 Source: http://www.doksinet 25 minister of the United Kingdom, the Second World War had just broken out. During this period Churchill found it very important to tighten the AngloAmerican relationship, and he named

it, the “‘special relationship’”. Which was “an intimate, harmonious bond between two nations celebrated on state occasions with suitably hyperbolic prose”, as David Reynolds describes it. Churchill went on to popularize and coin the phrase, shortly after the Second World War, in the winter of 1945-6. However, Winston Churchill was not the only one to speak fondly of the Anglo-American relationship, as “later in the century, Harold MacMillanexpressed the same idea more elegantly when he spoke of Britain playing Greece to America’s Rome-civilizing and guiding the immature young giant”. 38 It seems that during the early period of the war, Great Britain felt that the United States was inferior on many fronts, and needed a little help, as is very evident in an anonymous verse of 1945; In Washington Lord Halifax Once whispered to Lord Keynes: It’s true they have the money bags But we have the brains. 39 However, it quickly became evident that Britain felt its superior

position in the world economy declining. The Second World War conflicted great hardships on their economy and position in the world. They reached out to America for support, and hoped to gain back the economic and political respect they had partially lost during the war. There were various factors that increased the intensity of the relationship between The United States and Britain, more so than for example other European countries. Firstly, it appeared they had strong similar interests during the war. For example, “both wished to maintain the independence of Western Europe in the face of powers apparently intent on continental domination, first Hitler’s Germany and then Stalin’s Russia and Cominform”. Secondly, they were liberal countries, “capitalist democracies, sharing common beliefs in the rule of law and the D. Reynolds From World War to Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 1 R.N Gardner Sterling-dollar Diplomacy in Current Perspective (New York: Columbia

University Press, 1980), 18. 38 39 Source: http://www.doksinet 26 principle of peaceful change”. Thirdly, sharing the same language facilitated their relationship, as communicating could be done at a higher level than with their other allies. Finally, another factor, which played a role in Britain’s reaching out to America, rather than continental Europe, was that they felt the French had betrayed them during the Phoney War, and “Britain therefore turned away from the perfidious continentals to its kin across the seas-the Commonwealth and the United States”. 40 However, it must be remembered that this relationship with The United States was not received optimistically by everyone. Within Britain the debate about mass consumption was stirring, and it was mainly the British Left that were concerned about the division of wealth, luxury versus necessity and the widening gap between the classes, which would occur if they were to embrace American mass consumerism. “While

necessity implied a set of rights to a basic standard of living, luxury remained more problematic”. To many, especially leftist Brits, the purchasing of luxury goods could imply two different things, both perceived as something negative. On the one hand “it could either represent, in the classical sense, the vampirism of the aristocracy and futile status seeking of the bourgeoisie”, and on the other hand, “the dehumanizing standardization and compensatory pleasures of the mass market ‘culture industry’”. 41 Therefore the first interpretation assumes that the mass consumerism of goods enhances the class division of the United Kingdom, and the latter refers to the Americanization of Britain, through consuming. It therefore seems that the mass consumption culture did not penetrate the United Kingdom without a struggle. Although there were many British citizens who accepted America’s mass consumption with open arms, there were also those who hesitated about whether

accepting it would do any good to their country. D. Reynolds From World War to Cold War, 5 Matthew Hilton. Consumerism in 20th Century Britain (United Kingdom, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 137 40 41 Source: http://www.doksinet 27 2.3 Advertising Advertising played, and still plays, a large role in the spread of mass consumption. To spread mass consumerism in America and Europe certain measures needed to be taken. Advertising was the new way forward when it came to American companies trying to sell their goods to a large and varied market. However, advertising has been through the needed transitions, to get where it is today. As Joshua Zeitz finds in Flapper: A Madcap Story of Sex, Style, Celebrity, and the Women Who Made America Modern; As recently as the 1980’s, advertising agents had served as little more than freelance brokers who purchased newspaper ad space in bulk and sold it back to local businesses at a marginal profit. Ads were tucked away discreetly

in the back pages of magazines and serials, used small print, and Source: http://www.doksinet 28 contained only the most essential information. No pictures, no catchphrases, no extra draw. Just the facts” 42 Therefore, the advertising strategies which we perceive as normal today, used to be non-existent in the past. Advertising used to be about facts and figures and not about glamour, pictures or size. With this change of advertising mechanisms, came change in the way consumers thought of certain products. Advertisers managed to make consumers feel they needed certain products to lead a happy life. Advertising was no longer just about promoting your product; it became a promotion of a new lifestyle. Americans tended to use the “pleasure principle” in their advertisements. “It undercut parental authority and cultural guardianship, promising the instant gratification of desire rather than its sublimation, consumption rather than consummation”. 43 American mass consumption

and mass culture was cleverly linked to pleasure by the advertisers. Through this method of advertising, every consumer felt they needed certain goods to feel happy. America was the frontrunner when it came to advertising. The “American advertising industry stood out not just in terms of its gigantic size, revenues, and the fat sums it added to the costs of distribution compared with all other countries of the world, but also for its growing legitimacy as a public vernacular”. The American advertising industry was extremely large, and these companies were very aware of the influence they had on society. Advertisers and their adverts were to be found everywhere and anywhere. “American advertising carved out a new domain in public space, one that was shared by the intrusive chain stores, big-brand marketing and the Hollywoodled cinema industry”. 44 This entailed that American advertising was a part of American’s every day lives, even if they did not want it to be. It seems that

as soon as advertising became more that just promoting a certain product, the Joshua Zeitz. Flapper: A Madcap story of Sex, Style, Celebrity, and the Women Who Made America Modern (NY: Three Rivers Press, 2006), 176. 43 Rob Kroes, “American Empire and Cultural Imperialism: A View From the Receiving End” (paper presented at the German Historical Institute, Washington D.C, USA, March 25-27, 1999). 44 Victoria De Grazia. Irresistible Empire: America’s Advance Through Twentieth Century Europe (Massachusetts: The Belknap Press, 2005), 229. 42 Source: http://www.doksinet 29 commercial space needed “cut into the public space that had been carved out of eighteenth-century absolutist regimes and in the nineteenth century was grafted onto every tissue of city centersin sum, in all the places where people crossed paths with one another and congregated more or less freely”. 45 For a product to stand out, and to convince a consumer they should buy it, the design of the actual product

and advert is very essential. Much packaging and many advertisements are almost works of art. “The separation between object and image, between commerce and art, is not as neat as it may appear”. The exterior of a product had to sell a certain image; an image a consumer could relate to, and would want to be a part of. A product had to have the ability to “push aside the competition (on densely packed store shelves) and to appeal to a picky public”. By creating certain types of images, certain messages were sent to the public through the product’s advertisement and packaging. The main message being something along the lines of ‘buy this product, and belong’. Commercial messages were to be found everywhere, “in newspapers, in periodicals, and via the radio to bring order out of chaos and to project an image in progress. All those who wanted to partake of this brave new world would have to follow their advice”. 46 Large corporations took advantage of this manipulative

power and exercised monopolistic power by sustaining the demand for their products, through advertising through the media. Many critics find advertising a way to keep capitalism in place and find advertising a “manipulation of preferences”. They find that “’the promotion of a culture of consumerism’ is needed to ‘sustain sufficient buoyancy of demand in consumer markets to keep capitalist production profitable”. 47 So, advertising is needed to make sure that capitalism can thrive and many large companies can keep their profit margins up. Victoria De Grazia. Irresistible Empire: America’s Advance Through Twentieth Century Europe, 230. 46 Rob Kroes. If You’ve Seen One, You’ve Seen the Mall (Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1996), 94-96. 47 Alberto Bisin and Jess Benhabib. Advertising, Mass Consumption and Capitalism (NYU, 2000), 1. 45 Source: http://www.doksinet 30 This “monopoly power and advertising are intended as a form of ‘manipulation’. They

interact to ‘manufacture individual identities’, to induce a system of values and preferences on the part of consumers which is not ‘natural’”. 48 This manipulation of consumers leads to them believing they need goods which they do not need at all. Because of advertising, consumers’ tastes are formed and shaped by what producers of goods choose to promote in advertising campaigns. Therefore, through advertising a whole consumer culture is determined. Whether a pair of baggy jeans or skinny jeans is the latest must-have item, is determined by what the producers of jeans choose to advertise at the time. Therefore, advertising targets another field, which lies outside of the selling of the good they are promoting. Namely, what American culture consists of, is partly determined through advertising. As Arthur Asa Berger finds, “advertising now permeates American culture and has affected, in profound ways, everything from our food preferences and our body shapes to our

politics”. 49 It appears that there is a connection between socioeconomic status and the tastes of various groups in society. Higher classes will probably find leisure activities such as going to the ballet more interesting, than lower classes. Also, higher classes might prefer to drink champagne, whereas lower classes might prefer to drink beer. Therefore, the advertising industry is very sly when it comes to creating their adverts. They produce certain adverts for certain target groups. “For example, serving the right brand of wine shows that we are sophisticated and have good taste, The advertisements for expensive wine must also be elegant and reflect a sense of refinement”. 50 The advertising industry has managed to concoct a way of using certain advertising methods for certain groups within society, thereby maintaining the class divisions within this society. Alberto Bisin and Jess Benhabib. Advertising, Mass Consumption and Capitalism, 2 Arthur A. Berger Ads, Fads, and

Consumer Culture: Advertising’s Impact on American Character and Society (Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc, 2000), 21. 50 Arthur A. Berger Ads, Fads, and Consumer Culture: Advertising’s Impact on American Character and Society, 25. 48 49 Source: http://www.doksinet 31 This clearly reflects the large influence advertising has on culture. The gap between different classes in society is widening, and advertising plays an important role in this phenomenon. Consumer culture is privatistic, which means that people consume how they want to, without taking any other factors into account. With this focus on personal consumption, social investment for the public good is not a priority to most people, leading to individualistic and selfish attitudes. This in turn leads to “American society becoming more and more split into two classes, one that is increasingly wealthy and one that is increasingly poor”. With this the public sphere is neglected and “advertising often

distracts us from paying attention to the need for social investmentsand thus, by its very nature, tends to be politically conservative”. 51 As mentioned above, not only the marketing of consumer goods is targeted, “private corporations have dominated the leisure market (too), encouraging us to think of leisure as a consumption opportunity”. Therefore, advertisers have penetrated through to the leisure market as well. “Leisure itself is ‘commodified’, and transformed into a form of consumption”. According to Bisin this commercialization of leisure leads to the “work and spend cycle”, because preferences are manipulated by the advertisers. 52 Consumers prefer to work more, to earn more money so that they can spend more on mass consumer goods. This leads to a decrease in time spent on leisure activities, thus changing the way a consumer spends their time. Advertising as a mode to promote a certain lifestyle and not just to promote goods is further explored in Zeitz’s

work. He finds that advertisers focused on producing desire for a certain product, more than just providing information about specific products. “Between 1900 and 1920, the nature of advertising changed markedly”. Whole artworks were incorporated into advertising campaigns. As mentioned earlier, adverts no longer just consisted of written texts; illustrations became one of the most important ways to Arthur A. Berger Ads, Fads, and Consumer Culture: Advertising’s Impact on American Character and Society, 26. 52 Alberto Bisin and Jess Benhabib. Advertising, Mass Consumption and Capitalism, 2 51 Source: http://www.doksinet 32 promote your product. In the 1920s the first major shift in advertising took place. Adverts no longer only used pictures of the products they were trying to sell; they started focusing on the “image of people enjoying the product”. They focused their attention on the effect a certain advert could have on a consumer. “New Age admen weren’t selling

soap, automobiles, and clothing They were selling the happiness and exhilaration that came from buying soap, automobiles and clothing”. 53 By this time the focus of advertisers had shifted for good. They were no longer only promoting their product, but a way of life, embodied in the American dream they were trying to sell. Furthermore, the idea of branding started to take shape. People had to be convinced that they needed certain brands over others. Whereas people used to buy products produced in little shops and factories from the local corner shop, now consumers had to be persuaded to buy products with certain brand names. Every consumer had to feel that they needed Coca-Cola for their guests to show off their affluence and teenagers needed Wrigley’s chewing gum to show off to their friends how cool they were. This new form of advertising-the commercialization of leisure activities, the promotion of a lifestyle and branding-was also evident in the celebration of American and

European holidays. Joshua Zeitz. Flapper: A Madcap story of Sex, Style, Celebrity, and the Women Who Made America Modern, 178. 53 Source: http://www.doksinet 33 Chapter Three The Consumption of Holidays Source: http://www.doksinet 34 3.1 The Mass Consumption of Holidays The commercialization of holidays in North America and Europe is a phenomenon which slowly crept on both continents. Holidays were always widely celebrated throughout America and Europe. Religion played a large role in most families’ lives, and this was celebrated through religious festivities. However, the ways in which certain holidays were celebrated started to change when mass consumerism industries started to get involved. 54 Whereas the reasons for celebrating certain holidays, such as Christmas and Easter, were once religious, they now began to lean more towards a consumer-orientated one. It is important to investigate mass consumerism in the celebration of holidays because it plays a very important

role and takes an integral position in the lives of individuals, society in general, and businesses. For example, most households in America and Europe have begun to celebrate holidays in a manner which is partly, if not completely, influenced by mass consumerism. Perhaps this should come as no surprise; mass consumerism already had a stronghold on Western society and could not stay behind when it came to holidays. The consumption related to holiday celebration does not only affect households, however. Many companies of course thrive off of holiday seasons. Indeed, several large companies rely solely on the sale of holiday-related products. 55 The four main holidays, which will be focused on during the remainder of this thesis, are Christmas, Easter, Valentines Day and Mother’s Day. These holidays have been chosen because of their significance in American and European culture. They are celebrated widely in many different countries, and are all largely affected by mass consumerism.

Furthermore, the ritual of gift giving is present in each of these holidays, which in turn links them directly to mass consumerism. This chapter will examine two religious holidays - Christmas and Easter - and two non-religious holidays - Valentines More detailed information later on. For further information see Leigh.E Schmidt Consumer Rites: The Buying and Selling of American Holidays (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 3-16. 54 55 Source: http://www.doksinet 35 Day and Mother’s Day 56. The two religious holidays have been chosen because they seem to be most affected by mass consumerism. Also, these two religious holidays are enjoyed by young and old alike, by which they tend to be characterized by a particularly large amount of consumption. The choice for Valentines Day and Mother’s Day has also been made because these are also both holidays in which gift giving plays a large role. Furthermore, they have were partly created and fuelled by mass-consumerism

industries. It is interesting to research these non-religious holidays, because they offer prime examples of how mass-consumer industries have invented holidays to advance their own financial interests. Because many large companies stimulate the holiday industry through promotion of their specific products for specific holidays – such as the floral industry did for Mother’s Day - it seems that these large companies all have profit-making in common. 57 Yet, how is it that mass consumerism businesses have managed to tap into the holiday festivities of American and European culture, to further enhance their industries’ profits? It seems that one element is often forgotten in some of the literature that researches the connection between mass consumerism and holidays, namely that the celebration of religious holidays has always contained elements of consumption and indulgence. 58 Therefore, we must be careful not to blame the actual act of celebrating holidays on mass consumption

industries. The focus should be more on the way in which mass consumption industries have tapped into the festivities of the Church and taken advantage of these celebrations. Mass consumerism industries have managed to enhance and alter the way in which festivities take place, giving greater weight to massive consumer spending than before. But it must not be forgotten that the Church has always played a significant role in the festivities. Although Mother’s Day and Valentines Day do have roots in religion, these are much less so than Christmas and Easter. Furthermore, nothing religious is actually celebrated during these holidays. 57 More one the floral industry and Mother’s Day in chapter 3.3 58 An example is Jack Santino. New Old Fashioned Ways: Holidays and Popular Culture (Knoxville, USA: The University of Tennessee Press, 1996) 56 Source: http://www.doksinet 36 The process of gift giving during holidays dates back as early as the nineteenth century, especially among the

bourgeoisie from the late 1890’s on. 59 The act of gift giving showed off one’s status in society, and was considered sophisticated and cosmopolitan. Therefore it was also perceived by people from different layers of society as something to aspire to. “To middle class celebrants, the ‘innocent’ amusements of holiday gift giving within the ‘domestic circle’ represented the ‘progress of refinement’”. 60 Psychological factors were at work as well. The process of giving gifts is a way of showing someone you care. Thus, giving gifts is more than just about spending money and consuming products. At a psychological level, it makes a statement about the relationships between people in the society they live in. Gift transactions confirm ties between individuals and in turn are a way of maintaining valued relationships. 61 Furthermore, the Church and festivities were already linked in early America and Europe. Religious festivals were celebrated through special fairs and

markets, which were organized specifically for the celebration of the certain holidays. 62 Therefore, the link between religion and celebration through consumption had already been established before the mass consumer businesses took center stage. Now that mass consumer businesses have taken center stage, many aspects concerning the way holidays are celebrated have changed. Although religion is very important in America and Americans are one of the most religious peoples of the world, religious holidays in America - and Europe are no longer celebrated for solely religious purposes. 63 Many Americans use mass consumerism to aid the celebration of the holidays. Because of the combination of religious and secular holiday rituals, the actual reason for celebrating these holidays becomes blurred. Although Americans might know For more information see Leigh E. Schmidt Consumer Rites, 32-33 Ibid. 32 61 For more information see David J. Cheal “The Social Dimensions of Gift Behaviour,”

Journal of Social and Personal Relationships 3 (1986) 62 For more information see Andrew R. Heinze “Sacrifestivals: On Christianity and Mass Consumption in America,” Reviews in American History 24, No. 4 (1996): 670 63 Vincent J. Miller Consuming Religion: Christian Faith and Practice in a Consumer Culture (New York: The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc., 2004) 59 60 Source: http://www.doksinet 37 the religious reasons for celebrating these holidays, the time spent celebrating these holidays with a mass consumer orientation has grown. The secular celebration, during which Americans and Europeans get to hunt for Easter eggs, or unwrap their Christmas gifts, is definitely an important element of the modern celebrations. Because of the shift towards secular celebration in America and Europe, many companies such as Coca-Cola took advantage of the holiday seasons and marketed their products in accordance to the time of year. 64 For example, many large companies started

using special Christmas packaging, to make sure their product would fit into the festive season. Packets of crisps with little images of holly on the packaging; biscuits with a jolly Santa on the wrapping; and adverts portraying look-a-like celebrities, such as Kate Moss and Pete Doherty, caressing intensely and happily in front of a Christmas tree (figure 3) were, and still are, all used to promote a certain product around Christmas time. “Underlying this, of course, is the larger relationship of holidays to capitalist culture and consumerism,” as historian J. Santino reminds us. “Holidays in the United States are now and have been for at least a century intricately tied into the consumerist nature of this society”. 65 Figure 3. N Sandison (2007). Indeed, industrial commerce uses the American holiday calendar for a marketing strategy plan. For example, Christmas-themed advertising is thoroughly planned as the Christmas season approaches, and when it is Easter, the bunny

rabbits get pulled out of the cupboard. Many companies 64 65 More on this later in 3.2 Religious holidays: Christmas and Easter Jack Santino. New Old Fashioned Ways: Holidays and Popular Culture Source: http://www.doksinet 38 “began to devise ways of stretching the major ones (holidays)”, so that they could start selling their holiday-related products earlier and increase their profit margins even more. 66 As a result “Christmas is pushed forward to October, so Halloween gets bumped up to August”, with every following holiday taking up the shop’s space as soon as the preceding one is over. Many people may feel the large companies are taking advantage of unknowing consumers, but it is the consumer him-/herself who actively takes part in mass consumption. It is obvious that we cannot live in a money-based, profitdriven society, and still expect our major ritual occasions not to reflect that society. 67 Every holiday has certain products specifically linked to it. Companies

leaped at every chance they could get when it became apparent that some holidays did not have a specific product already associated with it. An example is the floral industry, the greeting card industry and Mother’s day 68. This can be seen as almost a second phase in the commercialization process. Newly invented holidays were specifically created for mass consumerism, and were being commercialized straight away. Many of these holidays “still needed to be rechanneled and remolded to fit commercial purposes”, so this was the ideal opportunity for large companies to change these holidays to fit their company’s needs. 69 Mother’s day is a unique example of how large companies have managed to manipulate consumers. The rise of mass consumption and commercialization in relation to holidays led to great conflicts. The world of commerce seemed to be threatening the boundaries that encircled the sacred space of home and church. The traditions of many Americans and the church were

being threatened by the rising commercialization of holidays. The rise of newly invented holidays “became characteristic of the American calendar and Leigh E. Schmidt “The Commercialization of the Calendar: American Holidays and the Culture of Consumption, 1870-1930,” The Journal of American History 78, No. 3 (1991) 67 Jack Santino. New Old Fashioned Ways: Holidays and Popular Culture, 5 68 More on this in 3.3 Holidays created by the mass consumer industry: Mother’s Day and Valentines Day. 69 Leigh E. Schmidt “The Commercialization of the Calendar: American Holidays and the Culture of Consumption, 1870-1930” 66 Source: http://www.doksinet 39 American public life: the proliferation of invented occasions that largely or wholly served commercial ends”. 70 Practically every American household felt it was necessary to engage in the mass consumerism around holidays, which was becoming more and more prominent in the United States. Religion, which had always played a large

role in many American’s family’s lives, became second to the commercial activities around the holidays. For example, people did not go to church at Christmas as much as they used to, and preferred to sit in front of the television and watch special Christmas editions of their favorite soap operas and movies. The classic Christmas carols and stories were de-prioritized as each Christmas, over time, produced more and more presents and exaggerated amounts of food to fill up the day, so that going to the church was no longer a priority. This also happened to the celebration of Easter, where the main expenditure is on Easter eggs and bunny rabbit decorations. 71 The commercialization of these holidays, therefore, has changed how American families spend their leisure time and how much time they devote to religion. Finally, the spread of mass consumerism during the holiday seasons also came to Europe. Although many European countries have their own spin on or version of various holidays,

they have each succumbed to American mass consumerism. The Easter bunny and Santa have taken over the religious symbolism during holidays in Great Britain too. Large stores stock their shelves with pink hearts, chocolates and cards in January, ready for Valentines Day in February. Hardly a single mother in the UK has to worry about not getting her perfume on Mother’s day and shops hang advertisements for Christmas articles in their windows, months in advance of December 25th. Santa Claus “ho-ho’s” joyfully in department stores and on street corners. Children and grown-ups alike get swamped by gifts they probably don’t need, and eat as much food as they possibly can. It is clear that the United Kingdom is a close second when it comes to the consumption of Leigh E. Schmidt “The Commercialization of the Calendar: American Holidays and the Culture of Consumption, 1870-1930, 912. 71 Vincent J. Miller Consuming Religion: Christian Faith and Practice in a Consumer Culture 70

Source: http://www.doksinet 40 holidays. The link between Great Britain and the United States, as mentioned previously, therefore seems to be getting stronger with time. Not only are they allies on a political and economical front, but they also seem to be so on a commercial and cultural front. Whereas Europeans came to America hundreds of years before and taught their language and culture to the inhabitants, it seems America is returning the ‘favor’. Source: http://www.doksinet 41 3.2 Religious Holidays: Christmas and Easter Christmas and Easter are celebrated almost throughout the whole of Europe and America. The focus of Christmas and Easter used to be on the religious aspects of the holidays. However, since the rise of mass consumerism this focus has shifted towards a more consumer orientated one. Almost everyone gets involved in the celebration rituals. It is impossible not to be enthralled by the Christmas and Easter festivities. Television commercials are created around

the holiday themes, shop windows are filled with Easter bunnies, chocolate eggs, Santas and Christmas trees, and newspapers warn consumers grimly about the number of shopping days left before the big day. 72 Not only have the non-religious, mass consumption industries tapped into the holiday consumer market, but the Christian entrepreneurs have started trying their hand at it as well. Various items, such as Christian art, greeting cards and bumper stickers – also known as “Jesus Junk” - are being sold in Christian For more information see: Mark Benney, Robert Weiss and Rolf Meyersohn. ” Christmas in an Apartment Hotel,”.The American Journal of Sociology 65 No 3 (1959): 234 72 Source: http://www.doksinet 42 religious bookstores. 73 Because even Christian stores have started to get involved in the mass consumer mania surrounding Christmas and Easter, it is difficult not to notice the turn in the way these holidays are celebrated. Although the religious roots were never

lost, the mass consumer industry has definitely left its mark on the holidays. Christmas has become the frontrunner when it comes to mass consumerism being linked to the celebration of holidays. As Cele Otnes puts it, “modern American culture is dominated by both the capitalistic production of goods and the materialistic consumption of goods. At no time of year is this fact more evident than during the Christmas season.” 74 The question now arises – why is this holiday so popular throughout America and Europe, and what makes it unique? It seems one of the most important elements of the celebration of Christmas to many Americans is the reaffirmation of personal ties. Christmas creates a certain solidarity amongst family members, as they come together to celebrate. Therefore, Christmas can be seen as an emotional expression of people’s feelings to one another. These feelings are further enhanced and reaffirmed through the act of gift giving. The importance of Christmas to the

home is also evident because it is the one day in the year when almost everything from shops, supermarkets, offices, and recreational facilities are closed. This further indicates the importance of the home during Christmas, and the actual act of being with the family during this day, as evidence of the ties of emotional affection towards each other and Christmas. 75 As the act of gift giving is a means of showing this affection towards one another, the large mass consumerism industries were quick to take advantage of this. Many products were promoted in family spheres Food and For more information see Joseph Baker and Jerry Z. Park “What Would Jesus Buy: American Consumption of Religious and Spiritual Material Goods,” Journal of the Scientific Study of Religion 46, No.4 (2007): 501-517 74 Cele Otnes, Young Chan Kim and Kim Kyungseung. “All I want for Christmas: An Analysis of Children’s Brand Requests to Santa Claus,” Journal of Popular Culture 27, No. 4 (1994): 183-194. 75

For more information on kinship ties in relation to Christmas see: Mark Benney. “Christmas in an Apartment Hotel,” 233-240. 73 Source: http://www.doksinet 43 drink products were advertised as the ultimate way to bond during the festive season. The large turkey on the table can therefore be seen as a symbol of coming together as a family, through mass consumerism. Furthermore, by giving gifts, individuals make statements about their relationship towards the society they live in, and by doing so, contribute to the moral order which exists in that society. 76 As the act of gift giving is perceived to be the enactment of ones love towards another, the importance of gift giving at Christmas has enabled the mass consumer industry to take advantage of these feelings of the consumer towards gift giving. Because of the link between gift giving and Christmas, the mass consumer industries have managed to make people feel that by giving people more – i.e larger quantities of – gifts,

they are showing their affection towards their loved ones even more. Between the 1920s and 1970s it appears that the scale of gift giving greatly increased. 77 Furthermore, whether a household had a large income or not, did not seem to matter in relation to gift giving at Christmas time. Of course, the gifts given were not as expensive and the quantities were not as large as those given and received by higher income household; however, gifts were still given and received whether there was money available or not. This indicates the pressure many Americans and Europeans felt about the gift giving rituals around Christmas. 78 Therefore, it appears that – as mentioned above – Christmas had become less of a civic festival and more of a family festival, in which family members felt the pressure to provide gifts for their family. On top of this, the proportion between men and women who were involved in the gift giving procedure and Christmas preparations was – and still is - out of

balance. Women tended to be the organizational talent behind the Christmas dinner, decorations and presents. In the study conducted by Theodore Caplow, women gave 84 percent of all the gifts and received only David J. Cheal, “The Social Dimensions of Gift Behaviour,” Journal of Social and Personal Relationships. 3 (1986): 423-439 77 For more information see Theodore Caplow. “Christmas Gifts and Kin Networks,” American Sociological Review 47 (June 1982): 383-392. 78 See David J. Cheal, “The Social Dimensions of Gift Behaviour,” 428-439, for more on income-related gift giving. 76 Source: http://www.doksinet 44 60 percent of all the gifts. 79 Therefore, the question now arises whether advertising was aimed at the female market, rather than the male market. Women seemed to be more susceptible to the feeling of pressure mass consumerism companies gave to the consumers. An example of a very smart marketing strategy used by an advertising company is the one Coca-Cola used to

promote its soft drink. The Coca-Cola Company asked an artist, Haddon Sundblom, in 1931 to create an image of Santa Claus, which would be recognizable to everyone and not easily forgotten. Therefore, this is one of the reasons why the image of Santa is so widely accepted as a depiction of the mythical figure, by children and adults alike (figure 1). The Coca-Cola Company wanted to create a special Christmas edition of its Coca-Cola cans and bottles. The slogan on the cans read “Surprise your guests with real holiday refreshment. Serve them ice-cold Coca-Cola”. Through this advertising campaign they felt they could give a unique twist to their soft drink, when in fact, the same Coca-Cola as in everyday cans and bottles was actually in the Christmas edition cans and bottles. The main aim of including a Santa Claus figure on the can was to “increase sales to children, because in the early days it was believed that Coca-Cola used coca (a narcotic plant), (and) it was taboo to direct

advertising at children under the age of twelve”. Through their image of Santa they managed to get the attention of young children. 80 For more information see Theodore Caplow. “Christmas Gifts and Kin Networks,” 387 Cara Okleshen, Stacey M. Baker and Robert Mittelstaedt ”Santa Claus Does More than Deliver Toys: Advertising’s Commercialization of the Collective Memory of Americans,” Consumptions, Markets and Culture 4, No. 3 (2001) 79 80 Source: http://www.doksinet 45 Figure 1: ACM Collectables.com: http://wwwacmcollectablescouk/catalog/images/1046santajpg This image of Santa Claus is still used today by others and is recognized by practically every American and European. Sundblom’s Santa became part of almost everyone’s collective memory of Christmas from the moment Coca-Cola used it for their Christmas advertising campaign. This Coca-Santa is a symbol of how the celebration of holidays has changed into a materialistic and consumer-based tradition over time. This

particular advertising success proves that Christmas is an ideal opportunity for large companies to theme their advertising accordingly, to fit the holiday season. Many companies have managed to manipulate consumers by leading them to believe they need certain Christmas themed products, when in fact, these products are exactly the same as during the rest of the year, but they just happen to have different packaging. This Santa figure is often named “the God of materialism and hedonism” by many throughout America and Europe. 81 Furthermore, he is blamed by many for “moving the primary scene of Christmas from the church to the department store”. 82 Therefore, is it clear that the advertising world has managed to cause quite an uproar in American and European society, by creating the iconic figure of Santa Claus for the marketing of a product. The R.W Belk “A Child’s Christmas in America: Santa Claus as Deity, Consumption and Religion,” Journal of American Culture (1987):

118. 82 D.J Boorstin The Americans: The Democratic Experience (New York: Random House, 1973), 160. 81 Source: http://www.doksinet 46 advertising companies have managed to create a certain norm in society, whereby it has become normal to want Christmas themed products around Christmas. The American and European public has accepted this norm into their culture without hesitation. Furthermore, the sly marketing skills of advertising companies do not only target the actual adult buyers of products. One of the factors that contributes to the want for Christmas related products, is the fact that advertising companies aim a lot of their advertising towards children. 83 Because children are very susceptible to adverts aimed at them, and because they also happen to be the largest receiving audience of gifts during Christmas, their wish lists often contain requests for these advertised products. 84 Therefore, by aiming many Christmas related advertising at children, who receive most gifts at

Christmas time, the advertising companies have managed to penetrate the consumer’s consumption patterns through their children. During Easter the same phenomena seem to take place. Advertising companies have taken advantage of the Easter bunny figure by marketing their goods with Easter-related themes. Furthermore, the Christian reasons for celebrating Easter are put on a backburner whilst the hunt for eggs commences. As with Christmas, the American and European public has accepted Easter in the form of a holiday during which the act of consuming lies in the foreground. Furthermore, Easter is celebrated almost as vigorously as Christmas, as for example, the Stock Market closes for Good Friday. 85 As with Christmas, large department stores announce pre- and post- Easter sales. Consumers are led to believe they need certain Easter products to succeed in having a proper Easter. Goods are produced en masse to keep as many consumers as possible happy. So, it seems as with Christmas, that

many For more on advertising aimed at children see: Cele Otnes, Young Chan Kim and Kim Kyungseung “All I want for Christmas: An Analysis of Children’s Brand Requests to Santa Claus” 84 For more information on the division of receivers and givers of gifts see: David J. Cheal, “The Social Dimensions of Gift Behaviour,” 428-439. 85 James H. Barnett “The Easter Festival – A Study in Cultural Change,” American Sociological Review 14, No. 1 (1949): 67 83 Source: http://www.doksinet 47 Americans and Europeans combine the religious reason for celebrating Easter with the consumption orientated one. As with Santa Claus at Christmas, there are a few non-Christian elements which are associated with Easter by many Europeans and Americans. Firstly, every household in America and Europe has heard of the Easter bunny. The rabbit is associated with the goddess of the spring, Ostara or Eostre. This is most likely where the name Easter originally came from, and this goddess of spring

was particularly worshipped in the month of April. Furthermore, eggs are closely linked to the celebration of Easter. Children go out into the gardens and fields in search of the hidden Easter eggs. The belief is that the use of eggs at Easter came over to Europe from the East. The egg is seen as the symbol of the Universe and of life. Because Christians celebrate Easter to commemorate the resurrection of Jesus Christ, which in turn signifies life, the egg is thought to symbolize this. And finally, the actual ritual of coloring the eggs for Easter is thought to have been introduced because the colors symbolize the colors of spring, and therefore, in turn, new life. 86 American mass consumption companies have used this symbolism, which has been a part of Easter for hundreds of years, to sell their products. Once again, they have managed to tap into a religious holiday, and have managed to manipulate it to best fit their needs. However, it must be noted that not only the general public

who had their preferences for the non-Christian way of celebrating Easter, went along in the mass consumerism of the holiday. Christian organizations tried their dab hand at it too. For example, Christian bookstores tried to persuade consumers that the ultimate Easter gift was a bible. 87 Furthermore, the actual inspiration for many shop window decorations came from “the elaborate decorations thatthe splendid urban churches created for ecclesiastical For more on the symbolism of Easter rituals, see James H. Barnett “The Easter Festival – A Study in Cultural Change,” 62-70. 87 James H. Barnett “The Easter Festival – A Study in Cultural Change,” 62-70 86 Source: http://www.doksinet 48 festivals such as Christmas and Easter”. 88 Many Christians felt they had to join the mass consumerism companies to make sure people did not forget why Easter was really celebrated. They felt that the “floral decorations, testifying the promise of new life, becameone of the dominant

ways of communicating the Christian message of resurrection”. 89 Through their participation in the mass consumerism culture, Christian organizations have managed to maintain their grip on society. However, they have also caved for the mass consumerism companies because they have started following their example. These mass consumerism companies have found as many ways as possible to sell goods by using Easter themes. Every imaginable kind of product has been customized to resemble an egg or a rabbit. “Paper eggs, wooden eggs, satin and silk eggs, plush eggs, tin eggs, silver eggs, gilt eggs, gold eggs, glass and china eggs and sugar eggs” were all the part of the newest rage. It seems the egg was the perfect Easter symbol for the American mass consumer market to commercialize. 90 Easter, which was originally linked to nature, spring and new life, was now being replaced by standardized merchandise. This mass produced, standardized merchandise was as far removed from nature and all

things natural, as was possible. The mass consumer companies have managed to turn a holiday which symbolized the beginning of new life and nature and commemorated the resurrection of Jesus, into a standardized holiday, as lifeless as imaginable. Leigh E. Schmidt Consumer Rites: The Buying and Selling of American Holidays (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1996), 195. 89 Ibid. 200 90 For more on the commercialization of Easter, see Ibid. 221 88 Source: http://www.doksinet 49 3.3 Holidays Created by Mass Consumer Industries: Valentine’s Day and Mother’s Day Whilst mass production companies left their mark on religious holidays such as Easter and Christmas, a new kind of holiday was appearing; the holiday which was actually created by, or fuelled by mass production companies. Whereas the religious holidays had been a part of American and European culture for many years, these new types of holidays were a product of mass consumption. Two clear examples of these newly

produced holidays are Valentine’s Day and Mother’s Day. Valentine’s Day is celebrated on the fourteenth of February each year, and is meant to be a day in which people show their love and affection for one another. Mother’s Day is celebrated on various days throughout the world. In the United States Mother’s Day is celebrated on the second Sunday of May. 91 In the United Kingdom Mother’s Day is celebrated on the fourth Sunday in Lent. 92 During Mother’s Day you are meant to honor your mother and celebrate her as a person, for all she has done for you and your family. Because of the success during religious holidays, large mass consumption companies saw the holiday market as the ideal opportunity to 91 92 For more information see <http://en.wikipediaorg/wiki/Mothers Day> More information about the reason for this date will be explained later on. Source: http://www.doksinet 50 expand their scale of production. Valentine’s Day and Mother’s Day in particular

proved to be very profitable holidays. Certain products and symbols were linked to the holidays, such as hearts to Valentine’s Day, and flowers and cards to Mother’s Day. Many different industries started to build a market for their products around celebration and ritual, by using heartshaped packaging or linking the holidays to their products. As Valentine’s Day and Mother’s Day evolved around showing a loved one you loved them, the giving of gifts was the ideal manner to do so. Large American industries, such as the floral and card industries, were quick to claim Valentine’s Day and Mother’s Day. Advertising companies ensured the giving of cards and flowers was associated with these two holidays by starting large advertising campaigns. 93 Through the smart marketing strategies of these industries giving flowers and sending cards on Valentine’s Day and Mother’s Day has become a part of American and European shared culture. Although Valentine’s Day and Mother’s Day

have become what they are today due to the influence of American mass consumerism industries, Mother’s Day had its roots in Britain long before these industries started getting involved in the celebrations. In the United Kingdom, Mothering Sunday was already widely celebrated as a religious day, on the fourth Sunday in Lent, to honor Jesus’ mother, Mary. 94 Furthermore, in the United States during the 1850’s, Anna Jarvis (sr.) was calling for a Mother’s Day movement, to promote peace after the Civil War. 95 She believed that enough mothers had lost their sons during the war, and she hoped that by promoting a day for mothers, peace would return. However, Anna Jarvis (sr) was not taken seriously, and she never managed to obtain an official date for her Mother’s Work Day movement. For more information on the card and floral industry see: Jack Santino. New Old Fashioned Ways: Holidays and Popular Culture (Knoxville, USA: The University of Tennessee Press, 1996) 94 For more

information see: V. Grim “Mother’s Day: Cultural Resources,” The African American Lectionary. (10 May 2009) 95 For more information see: H. Hildebrand “A History of Mother’s Day,” Houston Chronicle Interactive. 93 Source: http://www.doksinet 51 In 1872 Julia Ward Howe suggested the idea of a Mother’s Day once again. Julia Howe, like Anna Jarvis (sr), wanted Mother’s Day to represent a day of peace. 96 As an activist “she began encouraging a day of celebration for mothers during the post American Civil War era” and in 1870, “through her Mother’s Day Proclamation, Julia Howe connected her feminist beliefs that women could be social activists to the general idea that mothers were persons of peace”. 97 However, she too failed to gain the governments support to acknowledge her Mother’s Day. The final person to fend for a Mother’s Day was Anna Jarvis’ daughter, - with the same name - Anna Jarvis. Anna Jarvis wanted to bring about an official observance of

Mother’s Day, in honor of her mother for trying to establish the ‘Mother’s Work Day’. In 1908 Anna Jarvis appeared to be successful, as the first official Mother’s Day services were held around The United States. Finally, in 1914, Woodrow Wilson held a presidential proclamation “that promulgated Mother’s Day as a national observance”. 98 However, the Mother’s Day Anna Jarvis had originally hoped for turned out quite differently. Whilst she promoted Mother’s Day as a day of love and warmth and being with the family, the mass consumerism industries felt differently about this. They saw this new and upcoming holiday as the ideal way to earn some more money. Because of this the growth of the holiday was phenomenal. Twenty years after the holiday was invented, “it was one of the more prominent holidays in the American calendar and one of the most promising commercial events”. Anna Jarvis was not happy with the way companies took advantage of the day. However,

“commerce seized eagerly on Mother’s day from the first years of its celebration. Taking the lead in promoting the new holiday was the florist industry”. 99 Florists straight away realized that Mother’s Day had strong commercial potential. It seems that “without the systematic, sustained H. Hildebrand “A History of Mother’s Day,” Houston Chronicle Interactive V. Grim “Mother’s Day: Cultural Resources,” The African American Lectionary 1 98 Leigh E. Schmidt, “The Commercialization of the Calendar: American Holidays and the Culture of Consumption, 1870-1930” The Journal of American History. (1993) 99 Ibid. 900 96 97 Source: http://www.doksinet 52 campaign of commercial florists, Mother’s Day would certainly have been a smaller observance and might well have remained a parochial event”, and would eventually have faded away and might not have existed today. By 1918, ‘Say it With Flowers’ had become the slogan for Mother’s Day as a part of American

society’s first national publicity campaign. 100 Because of the involvement of florists, the white carnation became promoted as its emblem. Eventually, the greeting card industry followed in claiming the holiday. After Hallmark’s success at linking Valentine’s Day to their cards, infiltrating Mother’s Day seemed the logical next step. 101 In an article in a 1913 edition of The Florists’ Review, Mother’s Day is praised as being the ideal opportunity for florists to sell their products. The article demonstrates how the florists were proud to be the reason for Mother’s Day success. As the writer observes, “for the success of the ‘day’ we are to credit ourselves, us, we, the members of the trade who know a good thing when they see it”. The article continues to boast about how The Florists’ Review specifically is responsible for the day’s success, “Mother’s Day is ours; we made it; we made it practically unaided and alone”. The Florists’ Review also claims

the slogan, which was used throughout the United States to promote flowers at Mother’s Day, which is “white flowers for mother’s memory; bright flowers for mothers living”. Furthermore, a section of the article is committed to explaining to the reader, and fellow florists, how to best aid Mother’s Day. Advertising, Mother’s Day window displays and encouraging the mayor or the governor to issue a Mother’s Day proclamation are all amongst the advises. 102 Therefore, through the commercialization of this specific holiday, the holiday flourished and still remains existent today. Valentine’s Day’s history of flourishing is a little different from that of Mother’s Day’s. During the 1840’s St Valentine’s Day was rejuvenated in the United States. Whereas it used to be a long forgotten saint’s day, it had gotten a new lease of life through commercialization. As LE Schmidt finds, Leigh E. Schmidt, “The Commercialization of the Calendar,” 904 More on Valentine’s

Day and the card industry later on. 102 Mother’s Day and The Florists. The Florists’ Review 24 Apr 1913: 11-15 Print 100 101 Source: http://www.doksinet 53 With great suddenness and thoroughness, the commercial revolution loosened St. Valentine’s Day from its early modern moorings and redirected it into little-chartered waters. The holiday stood as a harbinger of the new possibilities and strange sardonicism that inhered in allying commerce and celebration, mass production and deeply felt sentiment. 103 Therefore, because mass consumer industries got involved in the celebration of St. Valentine’s Day, the holiday became a nationally recognized, not-to-bemissed American holiday Because large mass consumption industries had gotten involved in Valentine’s Day, the association of gift exchange with the holiday was inevitable. Due to the commercialization of Valentine’s Day, many actively involved in the ritual gift giving are often described as feeling anxious and

experiencing a lot of pressure to provide. 104 Valentine’s Day gift giving evolves around romantic symbolic gift giving. Therefore, the actual gift which is presented must be worthy as a symbol of love towards the receiver. Furthermore, gift giving at Valentine’s Day “might be governed by the need for relationship development or mutual social power exchanges between the giver and the receiver”. 105 This might lead to a struggle in which the giver feels he or she has to prove him- or herself through the act of giving a gift. Through the commercialization of Valentine’s Day large mass consumption industries have caused a strain on American and European society, in which the act of gift giving is expected at Valentine’s Day. Furthermore, it appears that particularly males feel the obligation to provide at Valentine’s Day. Researchers have found that there are two main Leigh E. Schmidt Consumer Rites: The Buying and Selling of American Holidays (New Jersey: Princeton

University Press, 1996), 39. 104 Dimitri Mortelmans and Sophie Damen. “Attitudes on Commercialization and AntiCommercial Reactions of Gift-Giving Occasions in Belgium,” Journal of Consumer Behaviour 1, No. 2 (2001): 156-173 105 Robert Rugimbana. “The role of social power relations in gift giving on Valentine’s Day,” Journal of Consumer Behaviour 3. No 1 (2002): 63-73 103 Source: http://www.doksinet 54 motivational drivers of gift giving at Valentine’s Day, being the self-interest motive and the feeling of obligation motive. 106 The obligation motive can be seen as an outcome of the influence of mass consumerism on people’s behavior because they feel the need to comply with social norms. Therefore, the social norm on Valentine’s Day seems to be that men are expected to give gifts. One of the reasons for the feeling of pressure men experience at Valentine’s Day might be due to the fact that men do not have the option of letting the female buy the presents, as is the

case with Christmas. Moreover, it appears that men tend to associate Valentine’s Day with giving gifts to “significant others”, rather than loved ones in general, such as parents, children and friends. This leads to a feeling of pressure to provide for their girlfriends, wives or boyfriends, and to show them how much they love them. On top of this, men appear to prefer to be the receivers of gifts, instead of the givers. This fits into the fact that women are the predominant group when it comes to gift giving. 107 Consequently, it appears that the large mass consumerism industries have managed to lay down certain norms for Valentine’s Day in American and European society. As a reaction to the norms which have been laid down by mass consumerism industries at Valentine’s Day some consumers have shown resistance. This “alternative consumption” or “anti-consumption” is enacted by individuals who believe holidays, like Valentine’s Day, are events associated with excess

in consumption. The consequence being that this public tries to avoid, minimize or adapt their consumption traditions. Valentine’s Day is especially prone to consumption resistance, because many people feel it is the commercialization and consumption of love and romance. Furthermore, it is a holiday that does not have its roots in religion, like For more information on the motivational drivers see: M.F Wolfinbarger “Motivations and Symbolism in Gift Giving Behaviour,” Advances in Consumer Research 17 (1990): 699-705 and C. Goodwin, K Smith and S Spiggle “Gift Giving: Consumer Motivation and the Gift Giving Process,”Advances in Consumer Research 17. (1990): 690-698 107 For more information on men’s perceptions of Valentine’s Day and gift giving see: Cele Otnes, Julie A. Ruth and Constance C Milbourne “The Pleasure and Pain of Being Close: Men’s Mixed Feelings About Participation in Valentine’s Day Gift Exchange,” Advances in Consumer Research 21 (1994): 159-164.

106 Source: http://www.doksinet 55 Christmas, and therefore many people feel it is totally unnecessary to celebrate something that is created by mass consumer industries. 108 However, the fact that some people demonstrate such resistance to Valentine’s Day says something about the way in which consumer industries have infiltrated society. The public can choose not to consume during Valentine’s Day, as a reaction to the commercialization of the holiday. However, by doing this, they are proving that the mass consumer industries have crept into their own lives, because they have made these consumers feel it is necessary to prove a point by not consuming. Therefore, it seems that whether or not people choose to consume, the mass consumption industries have managed to make Valentine’s Day and many other holidays a part of these people’s lives. For more information on market-resistance on Valentine’s Day see: Angeline G. Close and George M. Zinkhan “Market Resistance and

Valentine’s Day Events,” Journal of Business Research 62. (2009): 200-207 108 Source: http://www.doksinet 56 4. Conclusion Mass consumerism has become a part of most people’s lives in North America and Europe. The American mass consumerism culture has changed many Americans’ attitudes towards spending, the home, family, relationships and religion. Through clever advertising large companies have managed to influence and change Americans’ perceptions of needs and necessities. This change in attitude towards consumerism has also had its influence on the European consumer market. The new consumer driven society is so engrained into many Americans’ and Europeans’ lives, that they do not even notice it anymore. After the severity and hardships faced by Europeans throughout the Second World War, Europeans craved the comforts the Americans seemed to have in abundant supply. The Second World War had taken its toll on so many people, that they felt they deserved a little bit of

happiness, and if this was easily obtained through consuming, they did not hesitate for a second to participate in the attractive American consumption society. Source: http://www.doksinet 57 At the same time, the division of wealth started to change in the United States. Because of the rise in consumerism, various economic changes started to take place. As Kiminori Matsuyama found, the ‘trickle-down’ effect caused goods to become more largely available, which in turn led to the ‘trickle-up’ effect, causing an even larger amount of goods to become available to the public. 109 Because of this rise in mass consumerism, people became greedier for products they did not need – luxury goods were suddenly within easy reach. Demand started to rise, leading to products being mass-produced, which meant they also became more affordable to the general public. Many Americans no longer appreciated the difference between need and want. Many people’s lives became consumed by desiring

products. If a family could not afford a certain product, they felt unhappy: as if they had somehow failed in society. The American government also played a crucial role in the development of mass consumerism. After the Second World War they promoted spending as something that would save America and make its inhabitants happy. They made Americans believe it was their civic duty to spend and thereby created a surge in the demand for goods. This desire for goods, which was perceived by many as unreasonable, was also becoming ever more present in Europe. Initially, Europeans were hesitant about letting American influences into their countries. However, as Victoria De Grazia finds, they saw the abundance of wealth which many Americans appeared to enjoy, so it did not take long before they let the American culture seep into their own. 110 Although many scholars criticize Americanization in Europe, it must not be forgotten that Europeans themselves have embraced the American culture. As

mentioned earlier, Rob Kroes and Richard Kuisel find that the Americanization of Europe can also be seen as a historical process, which was unavoidable in a consumer based Kiminori Matsuyama. “The Rise of Mass Consumption Societies,” Journal of Political Economy 110, No. 5 (2002) 110 Victoria De Grazia, Irresistible Empire: America’s Advance Through Twentieth-Century Europe (Massachusetts: The Belknap Press, 2005). 109 Source: http://www.doksinet 58 society. 111 However, Americans do enjoy strong market control and therefore they have power over the way many Europeans consume. The idea that the choice of products available to Europeans is larger than ever before, can be questioned. Because Americans have the ability to mass produce goods and achieve very attractive price levels through economy of scale, this proves a major factor in the choice of supplier to the European marketplace. This also denies European companies from developing to their full potential and restricts

European consumers from being free to choose which product they truly desire. 112 One of the major factors that had an influence on the public believing they needed certain goods to become happy, was the strategy of the advertising companies. Large corporations saw the huge amounts of money that could be earned by advertising their products in a certain way to the public. Advertising used to be a means of describing a certain product to the public and adverts consisted of straightforward descriptions of the goods and information on where they could be bought. A new form of advertising became ever more present, in which the product was not merely sold as a material item, but as a way of life. 113 Advertisers managed to make the public believe their lives would become more meaningful if they bought certain goods. Advertisers did not only tap into the consumer market for material goods, but they also focused their attention on the leisure market. Because of this, many Americans wanted to

work harder, and work longer hours so, that they could afford all these goods and leisure activities, leading to the whole structure of family life to change for good. The focus no longer lay on the home, family and loved ones, but on spending. Richard Kuisel, “Americanization for Historians,” Diplomatic History 24, No. 3 (2000) and Rob Kroes, “American Empire and Cultural Imperialism: A View From the Receiving End” (paper presented at the German Historical Institute, Washington D.C, USA, March 25-27, 1999). 112 The “manipulation of preferences” as discussed by Alberto Bisin and Jess Benhabib. “Advertising, Mass Consumption and Capitalism” (Manuscript, NYU, 2002) 113 For more information see Roland Marchand, Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940 (California: University of California Press, 1985) 111 Source: http://www.doksinet 59 This trend further led to mass consumerism having its effect on American and European holidays as well.

Holidays such as Christmas and Easter were largely affected by mass consumerism taking over the entire event. As Leigh E Schmidt finds, Christmas was no longer a time for families to come together and contemplate about life and religion. The religious reasons for celebrating certain holidays became less important, and the new mass consumer orientated celebration rituals became a part of the holidays. 114 Parents chose to immerse themselves in the procedure of spending and consuming. Products were made to measure certain holidays, by changing packaging or using holiday themed adverts to sell the products. The mass consumer industry even went so far as to create certain holidays so that they could sell more goods. For example, Mother’s Day was meant as a special day for all mothers to be appreciated. However, the floral industry was quick to take advantage of this holiday and linked flower giving to it. Mother’s Day literally flourished and became a perfect symbol for a holiday

fuelled by consumerism. Now the question arises whether the commercialization of holidays and society should be perceived as a negative phenomenon, or not. Because mass consumerism has achieved the upper hand in American and European societies, advertising has taken advantage of consumers and holidays are commercialized, one could wonder whether people have lost touch with themselves and each other. From the previous chapters it appears that people have become greedier and do not see the difference between ‘need’ and ‘want’ anymore. Has this led to a shallow society all based on spending money and consuming? Many claim that the home and church have been ‘put on a backburner’ and people do not seem to be happy anymore unless they are taking part in the mass consumer society. However, as Elizabeth H Pleck questions, are family values really lost due to the commercialization of Leigh E. Schmidt, Consumer Rites: The Buying and Selling of American Holidays (New Jersey:

Princeton University Press, 1996). 114 Source: http://www.doksinet 60 holidays? 115 Or are people blowing this debate about mass consumerism’s effects out of proportion? It seems that many people put the past – ‘when everything was better’ on a pedestal. The way Christmas or Easter used to be celebrated does not necessarily mean it was the right or better way. Somehow, to many the past is a place where virtue resides. The consumer culture is often blamed for the demise of family, values and morals. However, the masses who participate in the consumer culture are their own boss when it comes to relationships with their family, friends, or their religion. Mass consumerism is embraced the same way as American culture has been embraced by many Europeans. Therefore, it might be time to move on, and embrace consumption during holidays too. As with so many things in the United States and Europe, there is some form of negative anticipation towards all things new. When the first DVD

player was launched on the market, people claimed they would never abandon their faithful VCR. Today however, most people could not imagine a life without a DVD player. Therefore, it is crucial that mass consumerism is analyzed to find out what it has actually done to American and European society. Is the situation so grave that it must stopped all together? Or can the anticipation be overcome and be accepted into American and Europeans lives? As mentioned earlier, one element of American and European culture which has changed due to consumerism is religion. The extent to which the role of religion has changed for people personally cannot be determined, as everyone has their own perceptions about how their feelings towards religion have changed, or not. However, as found earlier, there is a clear shift in the way Europeans and Americans celebrate religious holidays. The church no longer holds the central role of the celebrations, as time is divided between the religious aspects of the

holiday, and the secular aspects. Whereas most time of the Elizabeth H. Pleck Celebrating the Family: Ethnicity, Consumer Culture, and Family Rituals (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2000). 115 Source: http://www.doksinet 61 holidays was spent contemplating the religious meaning behind the day, much of this time is now spent on the consumption rituals. However, as Vincent J. Miller finds The United States still remains one of the most religious of the developed capitalist societies. 116 Therefore, people should think twice about judging the influence of mass consumerism in this area. Religion still appears to be important to many Americans and Europeans alike. The main difference is that many people have allowed mass consumerism to accompany religion during the celebration of holidays, not to erase it. Furthermore, the act of consuming is mostly done in groups, with friends and family. Therefore, the combination of religion and consuming at holidays further

enhances the time spent together with family and friends. Many Europeans and Americans will probably continue to try and resist the consumer culture. As found in the previous chapters consumer culture will be seen as the reason for the decay of modern values, family relationships, friendships, and morals, for many more years. However, what many people forget is that large marketing and advertising companies have long prepared themselves for this anti-consumption movement. As more and more people blame mass consumerism for a large variety of things, advertising companies already have their plans laid out. In shops all across America and Europe marketers have already responded to anti-consumerism, by promoting their products as pure, clean and simple. Special neutral packaging is used; to give the consumer the feeling they are going ‘back to their roots’ and are ignoring the large mass consumption companies. Around the holiday seasons magazines promote the ‘true meaning of

Christmas’, and how to prepare a ‘proper’ Easter meal, without all the frills. 117 Thereby, mass consumption industries have tapped into the general feeling of consumers, and are always one step ahead of them. It appears there is no real way of escaping mass consumerism. The harder we try to resist it, the harder the mass consumer industries try their Vincent J. Miller Consuming Religion: Christian Faith and Practice in a Consumer Culture (New York: The Continuum International Publishing Group Inc, 2004) 117 Vincent J. Miller Consuming Religion: Christian Faith and Practice in a Consumer Culture 116 Source: http://www.doksinet 62 best to fool us once again. However, the rise of mass consumerism does not necessarily equal the decay of the family, morals and values. Therefore, this thesis has tapped into an area of research which needs to be looked at more carefully. By analyzing what other researchers have concluded, it becomes clear that there is another side to mass

consumerism. Religion is not lost, and people still communicate. If anything, the rise in mass consumerism can be seen as a way of bringing people together. Enjoying a Christmas dinner together, or opening presents with the family on Christmas morning is anything but a portrayal of the deterioration of relationships through consumption. It is clear that the way in which Europeans and Americans celebrate holidays has changed. It is also clear that the mass consumption industries earn a lot of money from consumers. It is important to analyze the negative aspects of mass consumerism in order to better understand the positive aspects mass consumerism brings along with it. Taking part in the act of consuming is inevitable, and a part of America’s and Europe’s modern culture. Instead of trying to fight a battle which cannot be won, it might be time to embrace the new modernity. Source: http://www.doksinet 63 Bibliography Arnould, Eric J., and Craig J Thompson “Consumer Culture

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