Programozás | Egyéb » Alexander Medvednikov - V programming language documentation, Vlang

V Documentation Introduction V is a statically typed compiled programming language designed for building maintainable software. Its similar to Go and its design has also been influenced by Oberon, Rust, Swift, Kotlin, and Python. V is a very simple language. Going through this documentation will take you about an hour, and by the end of it you will have pretty much learned the entire language. The language promotes writing simple and clear code with minimal abstraction. Despite being simple, V gives the developer a lot of power. Anything you can do in other languages, you can do in V Install from source The major way to get the latest and greatest V, is to install it from source. It is easy, and it usually takes only a few seconds. Linux, macOS, FreeBSD, etc: You need git, and a C compiler like tcc, gcc or clang, and make: git clone https://github.com/vlang/v cd v make Windows: You need git, and a C compiler like tcc, gcc, clang or msvc: git clone https://github.com/vlang/v cd v

make.bat -tcc NB: You can also pass one of -gcc, -msvc, -clang to make.bat instead, if you do prefer to use a different C compiler, but -tcc is small, fast, and easy to install (V will download a prebuilt binary automatically). It is recommended to add this folder to the PATH of your environment variables. This can be done with the command vexe symlink. NB: Some antivirus programs (like Symantec) are paranoid about executables with 1 letter names (like v.exe) One possible workaround in that situation is copying v.exe to vlangexe (so that the copy is newer), or whitelisting the V folder in your antivirus program. Android Running V graphical apps on Android is also possible via vab. V Android dependencies: V, Java JDK >= 8, Android SDK + NDK. 1.Install dependencies (see vab) 2.Connect your Android device 3.Run: git clone https://github.com/vlang/vab && cd vab && v vabv ./vab --device auto run /path/to/v/examples/sokol/particles For more details and

troubleshooting, please visit the vab GitHub repository. Table of Contents • Hello world • Functions 2 • Writing documentation • Running a project folder • Tools • Returning multiple values • Hoistings • Symbol visibility • Pure functions by default • Mutable arguments • Variable number of arguments • Anonymous & higher-order functions • Closures • References • Variables • Constants • V types • Builtin functions • Comments • Functions • • • • Strings Numbers Arrays Fixed size arrays • Maps • Module imports • Statements & expressions • If • In operator • For loop • Match • Defer • Structs • Default field values • Short struct literal syntax • Access modifiers • Methods • Embedded structs • Unions • Printing custom types • Modules • Type Declarations • • • • • Interfaces Enums Sum types Type aliases Option/Result types & error handling • Custom error types •

Generics • Concurrency • Spawning Concurrent Tasks • Channels • Shared Objects • JSON • Decoding JSON • Encoding JSON • Testing • Memory management • v fmt • v shader • Profiling • Package Management • Publish package • Advanced Topics • Dumping expressions at runtime • Memory-unsafe code • Structs with reference fields • sizeof and offsetof • Calling C from V • Calling V from C • Atomics • Global Variables • Debugging • Conditional compilation • Compile time pseudo variables • Compile-time reflection • Limited operator overloading • Inline assembly • Translating C to V • Hot code reloading • Cross compilation • Cross-platform shell scripts in V • Attributes • Goto • Appendices • Keywords • Operators • Stack and Heap • ORM Hello World fn main() { println(hello world) } Save this snippet into a file named hello.v Now do: v run hellov That is assuming you have symlinked your V with v symlink, as

described here. If you havent yet, you have to type the path to V manually. Congratulations - you just wrote and executed your first V program! You can compile a program without execution with v hello.v See v help for all supported commands From the example above, you can see that functions are declared with the fn keyword. The return type is specified after the function name. In this case main doesnt return anything, so there is no return type As in many other languages (such as C, Go, and Rust), main is the entry point of your program. println is one of the few built-in functions. It prints the value passed to it to standard output fn main() declaration can be skipped in one file programs. This is useful when writing small programs, "scripts", or just learning the language. For brevity, fn main() will be skipped in this tutorial This means that a "hello world" program in V is as simple as println(hello world) Running a project folder with several files Suppose

you have a folder with several .v files in it, where one of them contains your main() function, and the other files have other helper functions. They may be organized by topic, but still not yet structured enough to be their own separate reusable modules, and you want to compile them all into one program. In other languages, you would have to use includes or a build system to enumerate all files, compile them separately to object files, then link them into one final executable. In V however, you can compile and run the whole folder of .v files together, using just v run Passing parameters also works, so you can do: v run . --yourparam some other stuff The above will first compile your files into a single program (named after your folder/project), and then it will execute the program with --yourparam some other stuff passed to it as CLI parameters. Your program can then use the CLI parameters like this: import os println(os.args) NB: after a successful run, V will delete the

generated executable. If you want to keep it, use v -keepc run instead, or just compile manually with v . NB: any V compiler flags should be passed before the run command. Everything after the source file/folder, will be passed to the program as is - it will not be processed by V. Comments // This is a single line comment. /* This is a multiline comment. /* It can be nested. */ */ Functions fn main() { println(add(77, 33)) println(sub(100, 50)) } fn add(x int, y int) int { return x + y } fn sub(x int, y int) int { return x - y } Again, the type comes after the arguments name. Just like in Go and C, functions cannot be overloaded. This simplifies the code and improves maintainability and readability Hoistings Functions can be used before their declaration: add and sub are declared after main, but can still be called from main. This is true for all declarations in V and eliminates the need for header files or thinking about the order of files and declarations. Returning

multiple values fn foo() (int, int) { return 2, 3 } a, b := foo() println(a) // 2 println(b) // 3 c, := foo() // ignore values using ` ` Symbol visibility pub fn public function() { } fn private function() { } Functions are private (not exported) by default. To allow other modules to use them, prepend pub The same applies to constants and types. Note: pub can only be used from a named module. For information about creating a module, see Modules Variables name := Bob age := 20 large number := i64(9999999999) println(name) println(age) println(large number) Variables are declared and initialized with :=. This is the only way to declare variables in V This means that variables always have an initial value. The variables type is inferred from the value on the right hand side. To choose a different type, use type conversion: the expression T(v) converts the value v to the type T. Unlike most other languages, V only allows defining variables in functions. Global (module level)

variables are not allowed Theres no global state in V (see Pure functions by default for details). For consistency across different code bases, all variable and function names must use the snake case style, as opposed to type names, which must use PascalCase. Mutable variables mut age := 20 println(age) age = 21 println(age) To change the value of the variable use =. In V, variables are immutable by default To be able to change the value of the variable, you have to declare it with mut. Try compiling the program above after removing mut from the first line. Initialization vs assignment Note the (important) difference between := and =. := is used for declaring and initializing, = is used for assigning fn main() { age = 21 } This code will not compile, because the variable age is not declared. All variables need to be declared in V fn main() { age := 21 } The values of multiple variables can be changed in one line. In this way, their values can be swapped without an intermediary

variable. mut a := 0 mut b := 1 println($a, $b) // 0, 1 a, b = b, a println($a, $b) // 1, 0 Declaration errors In development mode the compiler will warn you that you havent used the variable (youll get an "unused variable" warning). In production mode (enabled by passing the -prod flag to v – v -prod foov) it will not compile at all (like in Go) fn main() { a := 10 if true { a := 20 // error: redefinition of `a` } // warning: unused variable `a` } Unlike most languages, variable shadowing is not allowed. Declaring a variable with a name that is already used in a parent scope will cause a compilation error. You can shadow imported modules though, as it is very useful in some situations: import ui import gg fn draw(ctx &gg.Context) { gg := ctx.parentget ui()gg gg.draw rect(10, 10, 100, 50) } V Types Primitive types bool string i8 i16 int i64 i128 (soon) byte u16 u32 u64 u128 (soon) rune // represents a Unicode code point f32 f64 isize, usize //

platform-dependent, the size is how many bytes it takes to reference any location in memory voidptr // this one is mostly used for C interoperability any // similar to Cs void* and Gos interface{} Please note that unlike C and Go, int is always a 32 bit integer. There is an exception to the rule that all operators in V must have values of the same type on both sides. A small primitive type on one side can be automatically promoted if it fits completely into the data range of the type on the other side. These are the allowed possibilities: i8 i16 int i64 ↘ ↘ f32 f64 ↗ ↗ byte u16 u32 u64 ⬎ ↘ ↘ ↘ ptr i8 i16 int i64 ⬏ An int value for example can be automatically promoted to f64 or i64 but not to u32. (u32 would mean loss of the sign for negative values). Promotion from int to f32, however, is currently done automatically (but can lead to precision loss for large values). Literals like 123 or 4.56 are treated in a special way They do not lead to

type promotions, however they default to int and f64 respectively, when their type has to be decided: u := u16(12) v := 13 + u // v is of type `u16` - no promotion x := f32(45.6) y := x + 3.14 // x is of type `f32` - no promotion a := 75 // a is of type `int` - default for int literal b := 14.7 // b is of type `f64` - default for float literal c := u + a // c is of type `int` - automatic promotion of `u`s value d := b + x // d is of type `f64` - automatic promotion of `x`s value Strings name := Bob assert name.len == 3 // will print 3 assert name[0] == byte(66) // indexing gives a byte, byte(66) == `B` assert name[1.3] == ob // slicing gives a string ob // escape codes windows newline := // escape special characters like in C assert windows newline.len == 2 // arbitrary bytes can be directly specified using `x##` notation where `#` is // a hex digit aardvark str := x61ardvark assert aardvark str == aardvark assert xc0[0] == byte(0xc0) // or using octal escape `###`

notation where `#` is an octal digit aardvark str2 := 141ardvark assert aardvark str2 == aardvark // Unicode can be specified directly as `u####` where # is a hex digit // and will be converted internally to its UTF-8 representation star str := u2605 // ★ assert star str == ★ assert star str == xe2x98x85 // UTF-8 can be specified this way too. In V, a string is a read-only array of bytes. All Unicode characters are encoded using UTF-8: s := hello � // emoji takes 4 bytes assert s.len == 10 arr := s.bytes() // convert `string` to `[]byte` assert arr.len == 10 s2 := arr.bytestr() // convert `[]byte` to `string` assert s2 == s String values are immutable. You cannot mutate elements: mut s := hello � s[0] = `H` // not allowed error: cannot assign to s[i] since V strings are immutable Note that indexing a string will produce a byte, not a rune nor another string. Indexes correspond to bytes in the string, not Unicode code points. If you want to convert the byte to a string,

use the ascii str() method on the byte: country := Netherlands println(country[0]) // Output: 78 println(country[0].ascii str()) // Output: N Both single and double quotes can be used to denote strings. For consistency, vfmt converts double quotes to single quotes unless the string contains a single quote character. For raw strings, prepend r. Escape handling is not done for raw strings: s := rhello world // the ` ` will be preserved as two characters println(s) // "hello world" Strings can be easily converted to integers: s := 42 n := s.int() // 42 // all int literals are supported assert 0xc3.int() == 195 assert 0o10.int() == 8 assert 0b1111 0000 1010.int() == 3850 assert -0b1111 0000 1010.int() == -3850 For more advanced string processing and conversions, refer to the vlib/strconv module. String interpolation Basic interpolation syntax is pretty simple - use $ before a variable name. The variable will be converted to a string and embedded into the literal: name :=

Bob println(Hello, $name!) // Hello, Bob! It also works with fields: age = $user.age If you need more complex expressions, use ${}: can register = ${userage > 13} Format specifiers similar to those in Cs printf() are also supported. f, g, x, o, b, etc are optional and specify the output format The compiler takes care of the storage size, so there is no hd or llu. To use a format specifier, follow this pattern: ${varname:[flags][width][.precision][type]} •flags: may be zero or more of the following: - to left-align output within the field, 0 to use 0 as the padding character instead of the default space character. (Note: V does not currently support the use of or # as format flags, and V supports but doesnt need + to right-align since thats the default.) •width: may be an integer value describing the minimum width of total field to output. •precision: an integer value preceded by a . will guarantee that many digits after the decimal point, if the input variable is a float.

Ignored if variable is an integer •type: f and F specify the input is a float and should be rendered as such, e and E specify the input is a float and should be rendered as an exponent (partially broken), g and G specify the input is a float--the renderer will use floating point notation for small values and exponent notation for large values, d specifies the input is an integer and should be rendered in base-10 digits, x and X require an integer and will render it as hexadecimal digits, o requires an integer and will render it as octal digits, b requires an integer and will render it as binary digits, s requires a string (almost never used). Note: when a numeric type can render alphabetic characters, such as hex strings or special values like infinity, the lowercase version of the type forces lowercase alphabetics and the uppercase version forces uppercase alphabetics. Also note: in most cases, its best to leave the format type empty. Floats will be rendered by default as g,

integers will be rendered by default as d, and s is almost always redundant. There are only three cases where specifying a type is recommended: •format strings are parsed at compile time, so specifing a type can help detect errors then •format strings default to using lowercase letters for hex digits and the e in exponents. Use a uppercase type to force the use of uppercase hex digits and an uppercase E in exponents. •format strings are the most convenient way to get hex, binary or octal strings from an integer. See Format Placeholder Specification for more information. x := 123.4567 println([${x:.2}]) // round to two decimal places => [12346] println([${x:10}]) // right-align with spaces on the left => [ 123.457] println([${int(x):-10}]) // left-align with spaces on the right => [123 println([${int(x):010}]) // pad with zeros on the left => [0000000123] println([${int(x):b}]) // output as binary => [1111011] println([${int(x):o}]) // output as octal => [173]

println([${int(x):X}]) // output as uppercase hex => [7B] String operators name := Bob bobby := name + by // + is used to concatenate strings println(bobby) // "Bobby" mut s := hello ] s += world // `+=` is used to append to a string println(s) // "hello world" All operators in V must have values of the same type on both sides. You cannot concatenate an integer to a string: age := 10 println(age = + age) // not allowed error: infix expr: cannot use int (right expression) as string We have to either convert age to a string: age := 11 println(age = + age.str()) or use string interpolation (preferred): age := 12 println(age = $age) Runes A rune represents a single Unicode character and is an alias for u32. To denote them, use ` (backticks) : rocket := `�` A rune can be converted to a UTF-8 string by using the .str() method rocket := `�` assert rocket.str() == � A rune can be converted to UTF-8 bytes by using the .bytes() method rocket := `�`

assert rocket.bytes() == [byte(0xf0), 0x9f, 0x9a, 0x80] Hex, Unicode, and Octal escape sequences also work in a rune literal: assert `x61` == `a` assert `141` == `a` assert `u0061` == `a` // multibyte literals work too assert `u2605` == `★` assert `u2605`.bytes() == [byte(0xe2), 0x98, 0x85] assert `xe2x98x85`.bytes() == [byte(0xe2), 0x98, 0x85] assert `342230205`.bytes() == [byte(0xe2), 0x98, 0x85] Note that rune literals use the same escape syntax as strings, but they can only hold one unicode character. Therefore, if your code does not specify a single Unicode character, you will receive an error at compile time. Also remember that strings are indexed as bytes, not runes, so beware: rocket string := � assert rocket string[0] != `�` assert aloha![0] == `a` A string can be converted to runes by the .runes() method hello := Hello World � hello runes := hello.runes() // [`H`, `e`, `l`, `l`, `o`, ` `, `W`, `o`, `r`, `l`, `d`, ` `, ` �`] assert hello runes.string() == hello

Numbers a := 123 This will assign the value of 123 to a. By default a will have the type int You can also use hexadecimal, binary or octal notation for integer literals: a := 0x7B b := 0b01111011 c := 0o173 All of these will be assigned the same value, 123. They will all have type int, no matter what notation you used V also supports writing numbers with as separator: num := 1 000 000 // same as 1000000 three := 0b0 11 // same as 0b11 float num := 3 122.55 // same as 312255 hexa := 0xF F // same as 255 oct := 0o17 3 // same as 0o173 If you want a different type of integer, you can use casting: a := i64(123) b := byte(42) c := i16(12345) Assigning floating point numbers works the same way: f := 1.0 f1 := f64(3.14) f2 := f32(3.14) If you do not specify the type explicitly, by default float literals will have the type of f64. Float literals can also be declared as a power of ten: f0 := 42e1 // 420 f1 := 123e-2 // 1.23 f2 := 456e+2 // 45600 Arrays Basic Array Concepts Arrays are

collections of data elements of the same type. They can be represented by a list of elements surrounded by brackets. The elements can be accessed by appending an index (starting with 0) in brackets to the array variable: mut nums := [1, 2, 3] println(nums) // `[1, 2, 3]` println(nums[0]) // `1` println(nums[1]) // `2` nums[1] = 5 println(nums) // `[1, 5, 3]` Array Fields There are two fields that control the "size" of an array: •len: length - the number of pre-allocated and initialized elements in the array •cap: capacity - the amount of memory space which has been reserved for elements, but not initialized or counted as elements. The array can grow up to this size without being reallocated Usually, V takes care of this field automatically but there are cases where the user may want to do manual optimizations (see below). mut nums := [1, 2, 3] println(nums.len) // "3" println(nums.cap) // "3" or greater nums = [] // The array is now empty

println(nums.len) // "0" Note that fields are read-only and cant be modified by the user. Array Initialization The basic initialization syntax is as described above. The type of an array is determined by the first element: •[1, 2, 3] is an array of ints ([]int). •[a, b] is an array of strings ([]string). The user can explicitly specify the type for the first element: [byte(16), 32, 64, 128]. V arrays are homogeneous (all elements must have the same type). This means that code like [1, a] will not compile The above syntax is fine for a small number of known elements but for very large or empty arrays there is a second initialization syntax: mut a := []int{len: 10000, cap: 30000, init: 3} This creates an array of 10000 int elements that are all initialized with 3. Memory space is reserved for 30000 elements The parameters len, cap and init are optional; len defaults to 0 and init to the default initialization of the element type (0 for numerical type, for string,

etc). The run time system makes sure that the capacity is not smaller than len (even if a smaller value is specified explicitly): arr := []int{len: 5, init: -1} // `arr == [-1, -1, -1, -1, -1]`, arr.cap == 5 // Declare an empty array: users := []int{} Setting the capacity improves performance of pushing elements to the array as reallocations can be avoided: mut numbers := []int{cap: 1000} println(numbers.len) // 0 // Now appending elements wont reallocate for i in 0 . 1000 { numbers << i } Note: The above code uses a range for statement and a push operator (<<). You can initialize the array by accessing the it variable as shown here: mut square := []int{len: 6, init: it * it} // square == [0, 1, 4, 9, 16, 25] Array Types An array can be of these types: Types Number String Rune Boolean Array Struct Channel Function Interface Example Definition []int,[]i64 []string []rune []bool [][]int []MyStructName []chan f64 []MyFunctionType []fn (int) bool

[]MyInterfaceName Types Sum Type Generic Type Map Enum Alias Thread Reference Shared Example Definition []MySumTypeName []T []map[string]f64 []MyEnumType []MyAliasTypeName []thread int []&f64 []shared MyStructType Example Code: This example uses Structs and Sum Types to create an array which can handle different types (e.g Points, Lines) of data elements. struct Point { x int y int } struct Line { p1 Point p2 Point } type ObjectSumType = Line | Point mut object list := []ObjectSumType{} object list << Point{1, 1} object list << Line{ p1: Point{3, 3} p2: Point{4, 4} } dump(object list) /* object list: [ObjectSumType(Point{ x: 1 y: 1 }), ObjectSumType(Line{ p1: Point{ x: 3 y: 3 } p2: Point{ x: 4 y: 4 } })] */ Multidimensional Arrays Arrays can have more than one dimension. 2d array example: mut a := [][]int{len: 2, init: []int{len: 3}} a[0][1] = 2 println(a) // [[0, 2, 0], [0, 0, 0]] 3d array example: mut a := [][][]int{len: 2, init: [][]int{len: 3,

init: []int{len: 2}}} a[0][1][1] = 2 println(a) // [[[0, 0], [0, 2], [0, 0]], [[0, 0], [0, 0], [0, 0]]] Array Operations Elements can be appended to the end of an array using the push operator <<. It can also append an entire array mut nums := [1, 2, 3] nums << 4 println(nums) // "[1, 2, 3, 4]" // append array nums << [5, 6, 7] println(nums) // "[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]" mut names := [John] names << Peter names << Sam // names << 10 <-- This will not compile. `names` is an array of strings val in array returns true if the names := [John, Peter, Sam] array contains val. See in operator println(names.len) // "3" println(Alex in names) // "false" Array methods All arrays can be easily printed with println(arr) and converted to a string with s := arr.str() Copying the data from the array is done with .clone(): nums := [1, 2, 3] nums copy := nums.clone() Arrays can be efficiently filtered and mapped with the

.filter() and map() methods: nums := [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] even := nums.filter(it % 2 == 0) println(even) // [2, 4, 6] // filter can accept anonymous functions even fn := nums.filter(fn (x int) bool { return x % 2 == 0 }) println(even fn) words := [hello, world] upper := words.map(itto upper()) println(upper) // [HELLO, WORLD] // map can also accept anonymous functions upper fn := words.map(fn (w string) string { return w.to upper() }) println(upper fn) // [HELLO, WORLD] is a builtin variable which refers to element currently being processed in filter/map methods. Additionally, .any() and all() can be used to conveniently test for elements that satisfy a condition it nums := [1, 2, 3] println(nums.any(it == 2)) // true println(nums.all(it >= 2)) // false There are further built in methods for arrays: •b := a.repeat(n) concatenate n times the elements of a •a.insert(i, val) insert new element val at index i and move all following elements upwards •a.insert(i, [3, 4, 5])

insert several elements •a.prepend(val) insert value at beginning, equivalent to ainsert(0, val) •a.prepend(arr) insert elements of array arr at beginning •a.trim(new len) truncate the length (if new length < alen, otherwise do nothing) •a.clear() empty the array (without changing cap, equivalent to atrim(0)) •a.delete many(start, size) removes size consecutive elements beginning with index start – triggers reallocation •a.delete(index) equivalent to adelete many(index, 1) •v := a.first() equivalent to v := a[0] •v := a.last() equivalent to v := a[alen - 1] •v := a.pop() get last element and remove it from array •a.delete last() remove last element from array •b := a.reverse() make b contain the elements of a in reversed order •a.reverse in place() reverse the order of elements in a •a.join(joiner) concatenate array of strings into a string using joiner string as a separator Sorting Arrays Sorting arrays of all kinds is very simple and intuitive. Special

variables a and b are used when providing a custom sorting condition. mut numbers := [1, 3, 2] numbers.sort() // 1, 2, 3 numbers.sort(a > b) // 3, 2, 1 struct User { age int name string } mut users := [User{21, Bob}, User{20, Zarkon}, User{25, Alice}] users.sort(aage < bage) // sort by Userage int field users.sort(aname > bname) // reverse sort by Username string field V also supports custom sorting, through the sort with compare array method. Which expects a comparing function which will define the sort order. Useful for sorting on multiple fields at the same time by custom sorting rules The code below sorts the array ascending on name and descending age. struct User { age int name string } mut users := [User{21, Bob}, User{65, Bob}, User{25, Alice}] custom sort fn := fn (a &User, b &User) int { // return -1 when a comes before b // return 0, when both are in same order // return 1 when b comes before a if a.name == bname { if a.age < bage { return 1 } if

a.age > bage { return -1 } return 0 } if a.name < bname { return -1 } else if a.name > bname { return 1 } return 0 } users.sort with compare(custom sort fn) Array Slices A slice is a part of a parent array. Initially it refers to the elements between two indices separated by a operator The rightside index must be greater than or equal to the left side index If a right-side index is absent, it is assumed to be the array length. If a left-side index is absent, it is assumed to be 0 nums := [0, 10, 20, 30, 40] println(nums[1.4]) // [10, 20, 30] println(nums[.4]) // [0, 10, 20, 30] println(nums[1.]) // [10, 20, 30, 40] In V slices are arrays themselves (they are not distinct types). As a result all array operations may be performed on them E.g they can be pushed onto an array of the same type: array 1 := [3, 5, 4, 7, 6] mut array 2 := [0, 1] array 2 << array 1[.3] println(array 2) // `[0, 1, 3, 5, 4]` A slice is always created with the smallest possible capacity cap ==

len (see cap above) no matter what the capacity or length of the parent array is. As a result it is immediately reallocated and copied to another memory location when the size increases thus becoming independent from the parent array (copy on grow). In particular pushing elements to a slice does not alter the parent: mut a := [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] mut b := a[2.4] b[0] = 7 // `b[0]` is referring to `a[2]` println(a) // `[0, 1, 7, 3, 4, 5]` b << 9 // `b` has been reallocated and is now independent from `a` println(a) // `[0, 1, 7, 3, 4, 5]` - no change println(b) // `[7, 3, 9]` Appending to the parent array may or may not make it independent from its child slices. The behaviour depends on the parents capacity and is predictable: mut a := []int{len: 5, cap: 6, init: 2} mut b := a[1.4] a << 3 // no reallocation - fits in `cap` b[2] = 13 // `a[3]` is modified a << 4 // a has been reallocated and is now independent from `b` (`cap` was exceeded) b[1] = 3 // no change in `a`

println(a) // `[2, 2, 2, 13, 2, 3, 4]` println(b) // `[2, 3, 13]` You can call .clone() on the slice, if you do want to have an independent copy right away: mut a := [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] mut b := a[2.4]clone() b[0] = 7 // NB: `b[0]` is NOT referring to `a[2]`, as it would have been, without the .clone() println(a) // [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5] println(b) // [7, 3] Slices with negative indexes V supports array and string slices with negative indexes. Negative indexing starts from the end of the array towards the start, for example -3 is equal to array.len - 3 Negative slices have a different syntax from normal slices, ie you need to add a gate between the array name and the square bracket: a#[.-3] The gate specifies that this is a different type of slice and remember that the result is "locked" inside the array. The returned slice is always a valid array, though it may be empty: a := [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9] println(a#[-3.]) // [7, 8, 9] println(a#[-20.]) // [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,

6, 7, 8, 9] println(a#[-20.-8]) // [0, 1] println(a#[.-3]) // [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] // empty arrays println(a#[-20.-10]) // [] println(a#[20.10]) // [] println(a#[20.30]) // [] Array method chaining You can chain the calls of array methods like .filter() and map() and use the it built-in variable to achieve a classic map/filter functional paradigm: // using filter, map and negatives array slices files := [pippo.jpg, 01bmp, vtxt, img 02jpg, img 01JPG] filtered := files.filter(it#[-4]to lower() == jpg)map(itto upper()) // [PIPPO.JPG, IMG 02JPG, IMG 01JPG] Fixed size arrays V also supports arrays with fixed size. Unlike ordinary arrays, their length is constant You cannot append elements to them, nor shrink them. You can only modify their elements in place However, access to the elements of fixed size arrays is more efficient, they need less memory than ordinary arrays, and unlike ordinary arrays, their data is on the stack, so you may want to use them as buffers if you do not want

additional heap allocations. Most methods are defined to work on ordinary arrays, not on fixed size arrays. You can convert a fixed size array to an ordinary array with slicing: mut fnums := [3]int{} // fnums is a fixed size array with 3 elements. fnums[0] = 1 fnums[1] = 10 fnums[2] = 100 println(fnums) // => [1, 10, 100] println(typeof(fnums).name) // => [3]int fnums2 := [1, 10, 100]! // short init syntax that does the same (the syntax will probably change) anums := fnums[.] // same as `anums := fnums[0fnumslen]` println(anums) // => [1, 10, 100] println(typeof(anums).name) // => []int Note that slicing will cause the data of the fixed size array to be copied to the newly created ordinary array. Maps mut m := map[string]int{} // a map with `string` keys and `int` values m[one] = 1 m[two] = 2 println(m[one]) // "1" println(m[bad key]) // "0" println(bad key in m) // Use `in` to detect whether such key exists println(m.keys()) // [one, two]

m.delete(two) Maps can have keys of type string, rune, integer, float or voidptr. The whole map can be initialized using this short syntax: numbers := { one: 1 two: 2 } println(numbers) If a key is not found, a zero value is returned by default: sm := { abc: xyz } val := sm[bad key] println(val) // intm := { 1: 1234 2: 5678 } s := intm[3] println(s) // 0 Its also possible to use an or {} block to handle missing keys: mm := map[string]int{} val := mm[bad key] or { panic(key not found) } The same optional check applies to arrays: arr := [1, 2, 3] large index := 999 val := arr[large index] or { panic(out of bounds) } println(val) // you can also do this, if you want to *propagate the access error: val2 := arr[333] ? println(val2) Module imports For information about creating a module, see Modules. Modules can be imported using the import keyword: import os fn main() { // read text from stdin name := os.input(Enter your name: ) println(Hello, $name!) } This program can use any

public definitions from the os module, such as the input function. See the standard library documentation for a list of common modules and their public symbols. By default, you have to specify the module prefix every time you call an external function. This may seem verbose at first, but it makes code much more readable and easier to understand - its always clear which function from which module is being called. This is especially useful in large code bases Cyclic module imports are not allowed, like in Go. Selective imports You can also import specific functions and types from modules directly: import os { input } fn main() { // read text from stdin name := input(Enter your name: ) println(Hello, $name!) } Note: This will import the module as well. Also, this is not allowed for constants - they must always be prefixed You can import several specific symbols at once: import os { input, user os } name := input(Enter your name: ) println(Name: $name) os := user os() println(Your OS

is ${os}.) Module import aliasing Any imported module name can be aliased using the as keyword: NOTE: this example will not compile unless you have created mymod/sha256.v import crypto.sha256 import mymod.sha256 as mysha256 fn main() { v hash := sha256.sum(hibytes())hex() my hash := mysha256.sum(hibytes())hex() assert my hash == v hash } You cannot alias an imported function or type. However, you can redeclare a type import time import math type MyTime = time.Time fn (mut t MyTime) century() int { return int(1.0 + mathtrunc(f64(tyear) * 0.009999794661191)) } fn main() { mut my time := MyTime{ year: 2020 month: 12 day: 25 } println(time.new time(my time)utc string()) println(Century: $my time.century()) } Statements & expressions If a := 10 b := 20 if a < b { println($a < $b) } else if a > b { println($a > $b) } else { println($a == $b) } statements are pretty straightforward and similar to most other languages. Unlike other C-like languages, there are no

parentheses surrounding the condition and the braces are always required. if can be used as an expression: if num := 777 s := if num % 2 == 0 { even } else { odd } println(s) // "odd" Type checks and casts You can check the current type of a sum type using is and its negated form !is. You can do it either in an if: struct Abc { val string } struct Xyz { foo string } type Alphabet = Abc | Xyz x := Alphabet(Abc{test}) // sum type if x is Abc { // x is automatically casted to Abc and can be used here println(x) } if x !is Abc { println(Not Abc) } or using match: match x { Abc { // x is automatically casted to Abc and can be used here println(x) } Xyz { // x is automatically casted to Xyz and can be used here println(x) } } This works also with struct fields: struct MyStruct { x int } struct MyStruct2 { y string } type MySumType = MyStruct | MyStruct2 struct Abc { bar MySumType } x := Abc{ bar: MyStruct{123} // MyStruct will be converted to MySumType type

automatically } if x.bar is MyStruct { // x.bar is automatically casted println(x.bar) } match x.bar { MyStruct { // x.bar is automatically casted println(x.bar) } else {} } Mutable variables can change, and doing a cast would be unsafe. However, sometimes its useful to type cast despite mutability. In such cases the developer must mark the expression with the mut keyword to tell the compiler that they know what theyre doing. It works like this: mut x := MySumType(MyStruct{123}) if mut x is MyStruct { // x is casted to MyStruct even if its mutable // without the mut keyword that wouldnt work println(x) } // same with match match mut x { MyStruct { // x is casted to MyStruct even if its mutable // without the mut keyword that wouldnt work println(x) } } In operator in allows to check nums := [1, 2, 3] whether an array or a map contains an element. To do the opposite, use !in println(1 in nums) // true println(4 !in nums) // true m := { one: 1 two: 2 } println(one in m) // true

println(three !in m) // true Its also useful for writing boolean expressions that are clearer and more compact: enum Token { plus minus div mult } struct Parser { token Token } parser := Parser{} if parser.token == plus || parsertoken == minus || parsertoken == div || parsertoken == mult { // . } if parser.token in [plus, minus, div, mult] { // . } V optimizes such expressions, so both if statements above produce the same machine code and no arrays are created. For loop V has only one looping keyword: for, with several forms. for/in This is the most common form. You can use it with an array, map or numeric range Array for numbers := [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] for num in numbers { println(num) } names := [Sam, Peter] for i, name in names { println($i) $name) // Output: 0) Sam // 1) Peter } The for value in arr form is used for going through elements of an array. If an index is required, an alternative form for index, value in arr can be used. Note, that the value is read-only. If you

need to modify the array while looping, you need to declare the element as mutable: mut numbers := [0, 1, 2] for mut num in numbers { num++ } println(numbers) // [1, 2, 3] When an identifier is just a single underscore, it is ignored. Custom iterators Types that implement a next method returning an Option can be iterated with a for loop. struct SquareIterator { arr []int mut: idx int } fn (mut iter SquareIterator) next() ?int { if iter.idx >= iterarrlen { return error() } defer { iter.idx++ } return iter.arr[iteridx] * iter.arr[iteridx] } nums := [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] iter := SquareIterator{ arr: nums } for squared in iter { println(squared) } The code above prints: 1 4 9 16 25 Map for m := { one: 1 two: 2 } for key, value in m { println($key -> $value) // Output: one -> 1 // two -> 2 } Either key or value can be ignored by using a single underscore as the identifier. m := { one: 1 two: 2 } // iterate over keys for key, in m { println(key) // Output: one // two }

// iterate over values for , value in m { println(value) // Output: 1 // 2 } Range for // Prints 01234 for i in 0 . 5 { print(i) } low.high means an exclusive range, which represents all values from low up to but not including high. Condition for mut sum := 0 mut i := 0 for i <= 100 { sum += i i++ } println(sum) // "5050" This form of the loop is similar to while loops in other languages. The loop will stop iterating once the boolean condition evaluates to false. Again, there are no parentheses surrounding the condition, and the braces are always required Bare for mut num := 0 for { num += 2 if num >= 10 { break } } println(num) // "10" The condition can be omitted, resulting in an infinite loop. C for for i := 0; i < 10; i += 2 { // Dont print 6 if i == 6 { continue } println(i) } Finally, theres the traditional C style for loop. Its safer than the while form because with the latter its easy to forget to update the counter and get stuck in an

infinite loop. Here i doesnt need to be declared with mut since its always going to be mutable by definition. Labelled break & continue and continue control the innermost for loop by default. You can also use break and continue followed by a label name to refer to an outer for loop: break outer: for i := 4; true; i++ { println(i) for { if i < 7 { continue outer } else { break outer } } } The label must immediately precede the outer loop. The above code prints: 4 5 6 7 Match os := windows print(V is running on ) match os { darwin { println(macOS.) } linux { println(Linux.) } else { println(os) } } A match statement is a shorter way to write a sequence of if - else statements. When a matching branch is found, the following statement block will be run. The else branch will be run when no other branches match number := 2 s := match number { 1 { one } 2 { two } else { many } } A match statement can also to be used as an if - else if - else alternative: match true { 2 > 4 {

println(if) } 3 == 4 { println(else if) } 2 == 2 { println(else if2) } else { println(else) } } // else if2 should be printed or as an unless alternative: unless Ruby match false { 2 > 4 { println(if) } 3 == 4 { println(else if) } 2 == 2 { println(else if2) } else { println(else) } } // if should be printed A match expression returns the value of the final expression from the matching branch. enum Color { red blue green } fn is red or blue(c Color) bool { return match c { .red, blue { true } // comma can be used to test multiple values .green { false } } } A match statement can also be used to branch on the variants of an enum by using the shorthand .variant here syntax An else branch is not allowed when all the branches are exhaustive. c := `v` typ := match c { `0`.`9` { digit } `A`.`Z` { uppercase } `a`.`z` { lowercase } else { other } } println(typ) // lowercase You can also use ranges as match patterns. If the value falls within the range of a branch, that branch will be

executed Note that the ranges use . (three dots) rather than (two dots) This is because the range is inclusive of the last element, rather than exclusive (as . ranges are) Using in a match branch will throw an error Note: match as an expression is not usable in for loop and if statements. Defer A defer statement defers the execution of a block of statements until the surrounding function returns. import os fn read log() { mut ok := false mut f := os.open(logtxt) or { panic(errmsg) } defer { f.close() } // . if !ok { // defer statement will be called here, the file will be closed return } // . // defer statement will be called here, the file will be closed } If the function returns a value the defer block is executed after the return expression is evaluated: import os enum State { normal write log return error } // write log file and return number of bytes written fn write log(s State) ?int { mut f := os.create(logtxt) ? defer { f.close() } if s == .write log { // `f.close()`

will be called after `fwrite()` has been // executed, but before `write log()` finally returns the // number of bytes written to `main()` return f.writeln(This is a log file) } else if s == .return error { // the file will be closed after the `error()` function // has returned - so the error message will still report // it as open return error(nothing written; file open: $f.is opened) } // the file will be closed here, too return 0 } fn main() { n := write log(.return error) or { println(Error: $err) 0 } println($n bytes written) } Structs struct Point { x int y int } mut p := Point{ x: 10 y: 20 } println(p.x) // Struct fields are accessed using a dot // Alternative literal syntax for structs with 3 fields or fewer p = Point{10, 20} assert p.x == 10 Heap structs Structs are allocated on the stack. To allocate a struct on the heap and get a reference to it, use the & prefix: struct Point { x int y int } p := &Point{10, 10} // References have the same syntax for accessing

fields println(p.x) The type of p is &Point. Its a reference to Point References are similar to Go pointers and C++ references Default field values struct Foo { n int // n is 0 by default s string // s is by default a []int // a is `[]int{}` by default pos int = -1 // custom default value } All struct fields are zeroed by default during the creation of the struct. Array and map fields are allocated Its also possible to define custom default values. Required fields struct Foo { n int [required] } You can mark a struct field with the [required] attribute, to tell V that that field must be initialized when creating an instance of that struct. This example will not compile, since the field n isnt explicitly initialized: = Foo{} Short struct literal syntax struct Point { x int y int } mut p := Point{ x: 10 y: 20 } p = Point{ x: 30 y: 4 } assert p.y == 4 // // array: first element defines type of array points := [Point{10, 20}, Point{20, 30}, Point{40, 50}] println(points)

// [Point{x: 10, y: 20}, Point{x: 20, y: 30}, Point{x: 40,y: 50}] Omitting the struct name also works for returning a struct literal or passing one as a function argument. Trailing struct literal arguments V doesnt have default function arguments or named arguments, for that trailing struct literal syntax can be used instead: [params] struct ButtonConfig { text string is disabled bool width int = 70 height int = 20 } struct Button { text string width int height int } fn new button(c ButtonConfig) &Button { return &Button{ width: c.width height: c.height text: c.text } } button := new button(text: Click me, width: 100) // the height is unset, so its the default value assert button.height == 20 As you can see, both the struct name and braces can be omitted, instead of: new button(ButtonConfig{text:Click me, width:100}) This only works for functions that take a struct for the last argument. NB: the [params] tag is used to tell V, that the trailing struct parameter

can be omitted entirely, so that you can write button := new button(). Without it, you have to specify at least one of the field names, even if it has its default value, otherwise the compiler will produce this error message, when you call the function with no parameters: error: expected 1 arguments, but got 0. Access modifiers Struct fields are private and immutable by default (making structs immutable as well). Their access modifiers can be changed with pub and mut. In total, there are 5 possible options: struct Foo { a int // private immutable (default) mut: b int // private mutable c int // (you can list multiple fields with the same access modifier) pub: d int // public immutable (readonly) pub mut: e int // public, but mutable only in parent module global: // (not recommended to use, thats why the global keyword starts with ) f int // public and mutable both inside and outside parent module } For example, heres the string type defined in the builtin module: struct string {

str &byte pub: len int } Its easy to see from this definition that string is an immutable type. The byte pointer with the string data is not accessible outside builtin at all. The len field is public, but immutable: fn main() { str := hello len := str.len // OK str.len++ // Compilation error } This means that defining public readonly fields is very easy in V. Methods struct User { age int } fn (u User) can register() bool { return u.age > 16 } user := User{ age: 10 } println(user.can register()) // "false" user2 := User{ age: 20 } println(user2.can register()) // "true" V doesnt have classes, but you can define methods on types. A method is a function with a special receiver argument The receiver appears in its own argument list between the fn keyword and the method name. Methods must be in the same module as the receiver type. In this example, the can register method has a receiver of type User named u. The convention is not to use receiver names like

self or this, but a short, preferably one letter long, name. Embedded structs V support embedded structs . struct Size { mut: width int height int } fn (s &Size) area() int { return s.width * s.height } struct Button { Size title string } With embedding, the struct Button will automatically have get all the fields and methods from the struct Size, which allows you to do: mut button := Button{ title: Click me height: 2 } button.width = 3 assert button.area() == 6 assert button.Sizearea() == 6 print(button) output : Button{ Size: Size{ width: 3 height: 2 } title: Click me } Unlike inheritance, you cannot type cast between structs and embedded structs (the embedding struct can also has its own fields, and it can also embed multiple structs). If you need to access embedded structs directly, use an explicit reference like button.Size Conceptually, embedded structs are similar to mixins in OOP, NOT base classes. You can also initialize an embedded struct: mut button := Button{

Size: Size{ width: 3 height: 2 } } or assign values: button.Size = Size{ width: 4 height: 5 } If multiple embedded structs have methods or fields with the same name, or if methods or fields with the same name are defined in the struct, you can call methods or assign to variables in the embedded struct like button.Sizearea() When you do not specify the embedded struct name, the method of the outermost struct will be targeted. Unions Just like structs, unions support embedding. struct Rgba32 Component { r byte g byte b byte a byte } union Rgba32 { Rgba32 Component value u32 } clr1 := Rgba32{ value: 0x008811FF } clr2 := Rgba32{ Rgba32 Component: Rgba32 Component{ a: 128 } } sz := sizeof(Rgba32) unsafe { println(Size: ${sz}B,clr1.b: $clr1b,clr2b: $clr2b) } Output: Size: 4B, clr1.b: 136, clr2b: 0 Union member access must be performed in an unsafe block. Note that the embedded struct arguments are not necessarily stored in the order listed. Functions 2 Pure functions by default V

functions are pure by default, meaning that their return values are a function of their arguments only, and their evaluation has no side effects (besides I/O). This is achieved by a lack of global variables and all function arguments being immutable by default, even when references are passed. V is not a purely functional language however. There is a compiler flag to enable global variables (-enable-globals), but this is intended for low-level applications like kernels and drivers. Mutable arguments It is possible to modify function arguments by using the keyword mut: struct User { name string mut: is registered bool } fn (mut u User) register() { u.is registered = true } mut user := User{} println(user.is registered) // "false" user.register() println(user.is registered) // "true" In this example, the receiver (which is simply the first argument) is marked as mutable, so register() can change the user object. The same works with non-receiver arguments: fn

multiply by 2(mut arr []int) { for i in 0 . arrlen { arr[i] *= 2 } } mut nums := [1, 2, 3] multiply by 2(mut nums) println(nums) // "[2, 4, 6]" Note, that you have to add mut before nums when calling this function. This makes it clear that the function being called will modify the value. It is preferable to return values instead of modifying arguments, e.g user = register(user) (or userregister()) instead of register(mut user). Modifying arguments should only be done in performance-critical parts of your application to reduce allocations and copying. For this reason V doesnt allow the modification of arguments with primitive types (e.g integers) Only more complex types such as arrays and maps may be modified. Struct update syntax V makes it easy to return a modified version of an object: struct User { name string age int is registered bool } fn register(u User) User { return User{ .u is registered: true } } mut user := User{ name: abc age: 23 } user = register(user)

println(user) Variable number of arguments fn sum(a .int) int { mut total := 0 for x in a { total += x } return total } println(sum()) // 0 println(sum(1)) // 1 println(sum(2, 3)) // 5 // using array decomposition a := [2, 3, 4] println(sum(.a)) // <-- using prefix here output: 9 b := [5, 6, 7] println(sum(.b)) // output: 18 Anonymous & higher order functions fn sqr(n int) int { return n * n } fn cube(n int) int { return n * n n } fn run(value int, op fn (int) int) int { return op(value) } fn main() { // Functions can be passed to other functions println(run(5, sqr)) // "25" // Anonymous functions can be declared inside other functions: double fn := fn (n int) int { return n + n } println(run(5, double fn)) // "10" // Functions can be passed around without assigning them to variables: res := run(5, fn (n int) int { return n + n }) println(res) // "10" // You can even have an array/map of functions: fns := [sqr, cube] println(fns[0](10))

// "100" fns map := { sqr: sqr cube: cube } println(fns map[cube](2)) // "8" } Closures V supports closures too. This means that anonymous functions can inherit variables from the scope they were created in They must do so explicitly by listing all variables that are inherited. Warning: currently works on Unix-based, x64 architectures only. Some work is in progress to make closures work on Windows, then other architectures. my int := 1 my closure := fn [my int] () { println(my int) } my closure() // prints 1 Inherited variables are copied when the anonymous function is created. This means that if the original variable is modified after the creation of the function, the modification wont be reflected in the function. mut i := 1 func := fn [i] () int { return i } println(func() == 1) // true i = 123 println(func() == 1) // still true However, the variable can be modified inside the anonymous function. The change wont be reflected outside, but will be in the later

function calls. fn new counter() fn () int { mut i := 0 return fn [mut i] () int { i++ return i } } c := new counter() println(c()) // 1 println(c()) // 2 println(c()) // 3 If you need the value to be modified outside the function, use a reference. Warning: you need to make sure the reference is always valid, otherwise this can result in undefined behavior. mut i := 0 mut ref := &i print counter := fn [ref] () { println(*ref) } print counter() // 0 i = 10 print counter() // 10 References struct Foo {} fn (foo Foo) bar method() { // . } fn bar function(foo Foo) { // . } If a function argument is immutable (like foo in the examples above) V can pass it either by value or by reference. The compiler will decide, and the developer doesnt need to think about it. You no longer need to remember whether you should pass the struct by value or by reference. You can ensure that the struct is always passed by reference by adding &: struct Foo { abc int } fn (foo &Foo) bar() {

println(foo.abc) } is still immutable and cant be changed. For that, (mut foo Foo) must be used In general, Vs references are similar to Go pointers and C++ references. For example, a generic tree structure definition would look like this: foo struct Node<T> { val T left &Node<T> right &Node<T> } To dereference a reference, use the * operator, just like in C. Constants const ( pi = 3.14 world = 世界 ) println(pi) println(world) Constants are declared with const. They can only be defined at the module level (outside of functions) Constant values can never be changed. You can also declare a single constant separately: const e = 2.71828 V constants are more flexible than in most languages. You can assign more complex values: struct Color { r int g int b int } fn rgb(r int, g int, b int) Color { return Color{ r: r g: g b: b } } const ( numbers = [1, 2, 3] red = Color{ r: 255 g: 0 b: 0 } // evaluate function call at compile-time* blue = rgb(0, 0,

255) ) println(numbers) println(red) println(blue) * WIP - for now function calls are evaluated at program start-up Global variables are not normally allowed, so this can be really useful. Modules Constants can be made public with pub const: module mymodule pub const golden ratio = 1.61803 fn calc() { println(mymodule.golden ratio) } The pub keyword is only allowed before the const keyword and cannot be used inside a const ( ) block. Outside from module main all constants need to be prefixed with the module name. Required module prefix When naming constants, snake case must be used. In order to distinguish consts from local variables, the full path to consts must be specified. For example, to access the PI const, full mathpi name must be used both outside the math module, and inside it. That restriction is relaxed only for the main module (the one containing your fn main()), where you can use the unqualified name of constants defined there, i.e numbers, rather than mainnumbers

vfmt takes care of this rule, so you can type println(pi) inside the math module, and vfmt will automatically update it to println(math.pi) Builtin functions Some functions are builtin like println. Here is the complete list: fn print(s string) // print anything on sdtout fn println(s string) // print anything and a newline on sdtout fn eprint(s string) // same as print(), but use stderr fn eprintln(s string) // same as println(), but use stderr fn exit(code int) // terminate the program with a custom error code fn panic(s string) // print a message and backtraces on stderr, and terminate the program with error code 1 fn print backtrace() // print backtraces on stderr println is a simple struct User { yet powerful builtin function, that can print anything: strings, numbers, arrays, maps, structs. name string age int } println(1) // "1" println(hi) // "hi" println([1, 2, 3]) // "[1, 2, 3]" println(User{ name: Bob, age: 20 }) // "User{name:Bob,

age:20}" Printing custom types If you want to define a custom print value for your type, simply define a .str() string method: struct Color { r int g int b int } pub fn (c Color) str() string { return {$c.r, $cg, $cb} } red := Color{ r: 255 g: 0 b: 0 } println(red) Modules Every file in the root of a folder is part of the same module. Simple programs dont need to specify module name, in which case it defaults to main. V is a very modular language. Creating reusable modules is encouraged and is quite easy to do To create a new module, create a directory with your modules name containing .v files with code: cd ~/code/modules mkdir mymodule vim mymodule/myfile.v // myfile.v module mymodule // To export a function we have to use `pub` pub fn say hi() { println(hello from mymodule!) } You can now use mymodule in your code: import mymodule fn main() { mymodule.say hi() } •Module names should be short, under 10 characters. •Module names must use snake case. •Circular

imports are not allowed. •You can have as many .v files in a module as you want •You can create modules anywhere. •All modules are compiled statically into a single executable. init functions If you want a module to automatically call some setup/initialization code when it is imported, you can use a module init function: fn init() { // your setup code here . } The init function cannot be public - it will be called automatically. This feature is particularly useful for initializing a C library Type Declarations Interfaces // interface-example.1 struct Dog { breed string } fn (d Dog) speak() string { return woof } struct Cat { breed string } fn (c Cat) speak() string { return meow } // unlike Go and like TypeScript, Vs interfaces can define fields, not just methods. interface Speaker { breed string speak() string } fn main() { dog := Dog{Leonberger} cat := Cat{Siamese} mut arr := []Speaker{} arr << dog arr << cat for item in arr { println(a $item.breed says:

$itemspeak()) } } Implement an interface A type implements an interface by implementing its methods and fields. There is no explicit declaration of intent, no "implements" keyword. An interface can have a mut: section. Implementing types will need to have a mut receiver, for methods declared in the mut: section of an interface. // interface-example.2 module main pub interface Foo { write(string) string } // => the method signature of a type, implementing interface Foo should be: // `pub fn (s Type) write(a string) string` pub interface Bar { mut: write(string) string } // => the method signature of a type, implementing interface Bar should be: // `pub fn (mut s Type) write(a string) string` struct MyStruct {} // MyStruct implements the interface Foo, but *not interface Bar pub fn (s MyStruct) write(a string) string { return a } fn main() { s1 := MyStruct{} fn1(s1) // fn2(s1) -> compile error, since MyStruct does not implement Bar } fn fn1(s Foo) {

println(s.write(Foo)) } // fn fn2(s Bar) { // does not match // println(s.write(Foo)) // } Casting an interface We can test the underlying type of an interface using dynamic cast operators: // interface-exmaple.3 (continued from interface-exampe1) interface Something {} fn announce(s Something) { if s is Dog { println(a $s.breed dog) // `s` is automatically cast to `Dog` (smart cast) } else if s is Cat { println(a cat speaks $s.speak()) } else { println(something else) } } fn main() { dog := Dog{Leonberger} cat := Cat{Siamese} announce(dog) announce(cat) } // interface-example.4 interface IFoo { foo() } interface IBar { bar() } // implements only IFoo struct SFoo {} fn (sf SFoo) foo() {} // implements both IFoo and IBar struct SFooBar {} fn (sfb SFooBar) foo() {} fn (sfb SFooBar) bar() { dump(This implements IBar) } fn main() { mut arr := []IFoo{} arr << SFoo{} arr << SFooBar{} for a in arr { dump(a) // In order to execute instances that implements IBar. if a

is IBar { // a.bar() // Error b := a as IBar dump(b) b.bar() } } } For more information, see Dynamic casts. Interface method definitions Also unlike Go, an interface can have its own methods, similar to how structs can have their methods. These interface methods do not have to be implemented, by structs which implement that interface. They are just a convenient way to write i.some function() instead of some function(i), similar to how struct methods can be looked at, as a convenience for writing s.xyz() instead of xyz(s) N.B This feature is NOT a "default implementation" like in C# For example, if a struct cat is wrapped in an interface a, that has implemented a method with the same name speak, as a method implemented by the struct, and you do a.speak(), only the interface method is called: interface Adoptable {} fn (a Adoptable) speak() string { return adopt me! } struct Cat {} fn (c Cat) speak() string { return meow! } struct Dog {} fn main() { cat := Cat{} assert

dump(cat.speak()) == meow! // a := Adoptable(cat) assert dump(a.speak()) == adopt me! // call Adoptables `speak` if a is Cat { // Inside this `if` however, V knows that `a` is not just any // kind of Adoptable, but actually a Cat, so it will use the // Cat `speak`, NOT the Adoptable `speak`: dump(a.speak()) // meow! } // b := Adoptable(Dog{}) assert dump(b.speak()) == adopt me! // call Adoptables `speak` // if b is Dog { // dump(b.speak()) // error: unknown method or field: Dogspeak // } } Embedded interface Interfaces support embedding, just like structs: pub interface Reader { mut: read(mut buf []byte) ?int } pub interface Writer { mut: write(buf []byte) ?int } // ReaderWriter embeds both Reader and Writer. // The effect is the same as copy/pasting all of the // Reader and all of the Writer methods/fields into // ReaderWriter. pub interface ReaderWriter { Reader Writer } Function Types You can use type aliases for naming specific function signatures - for example: type Filter

= fn (string) string This works like any other type - for example, a function can accept an argument of a function type: type Filter = fn (string) string fn filter(s string, f Filter) string { return f(s) } V has duck-typing, so functions dont need to declare compatibility with a function type - they just have to be compatible: fn uppercase(s string) string { return s.to upper() } // now `uppercase` can be used everywhere where Filter is expected Compatible functions can also be explicitly cast to a function type: my filter := Filter(uppercase) The cast here is purely informational - again, duck-typing means that the resulting type is the same without an explicit cast: my filter := uppercase You can pass the assigned function as an argument: println(filter(Hello world, my filter)) // prints `HELLO WORLD` And you could of course have passed it directly as well, without using a local variable: println(filter(Hello world, uppercase)) And this works with anonymous functions as

well: println(filter(Hello world, fn (s string) string { return s.to upper() })) You can see the complete example here. Enums enum Color { red green blue } mut color := Color.red // V knows that `color` is a `Color`. No need to use `color = Colorgreen` here color = .green println(color) // "green" match color { .red { println(the color was red) } .green { println(the color was green) } .blue { println(the color was blue) } } Enum match must be exhaustive or have an else branch. This ensures that if a new enum field is added, its handled everywhere in the code. Enum fields cannot re-use reserved keywords. However, reserved keywords may be escaped with an @ enum Color { @none red green blue } color := Color.@none println(color) Integers may be assigned to enum fields. enum Grocery { apple orange = 5 pear } g1 := int(Grocery.apple) g2 := int(Grocery.orange) g3 := int(Grocery.pear) println(Grocery IDs: $g1, $g2, $g3) Output: Grocery IDs: 0, 5, 6. Operations are not

allowed on enum variables; they must be explicitly cast to int. Sum types A sum type instance can hold a value of several different types. Use the type keyword to declare a sum type: struct Moon {} struct Mars {} struct Venus {} type World = Mars | Moon | Venus sum := World(Moon{}) assert sum.type name() == Moon println(sum) The built-in method type name returns the name of the currently held type. With sum types you could build recursive structures and write concise but powerful code on them. // Vs binary tree struct Empty {} struct Node { value f64 left Tree right Tree } type Tree = Empty | Node // sum up all node values fn sum(tree Tree) f64 { return match tree { Empty { 0 } Node { tree.value + sum(treeleft) + sum(treeright) } } } fn main() { left := Node{0.2, Empty{}, Empty{}} right := Node{0.3, Empty{}, Node{04, Empty{}, Empty{}}} tree := Node{0.5, left, right} println(sum(tree)) // 0.2 + 03 + 04 + 05 = 14 } Enums can have methods, just like structs enum Cycle { one

two three } fn (c Cycle) next() Cycle { match c { .one { return .two } .two { return .three } .three { return .one } } } mut c := Cycle.one for in 0 . 10 { println(c) c = c.next() } Output: one two three one two three one two three one Dynamic casts To check whether a sum type instance holds a certain type, use sum is Type. To cast a sum type to one of its variants you can use sum as Type: struct Moon {} struct Mars {} struct Venus {} type World = Mars | Moon | Venus fn (m Mars) dust storm() bool { return true } fn main() { mut w := World(Moon{}) assert w is Moon w = Mars{} // use `as` to access the Mars instance mars := w as Mars if mars.dust storm() { println(bad weather!) } } as will panic if w doesnt hold a Mars instance. A safer way is to use a smart cast Smart casting if w is Mars { assert typeof(w).name == Mars if w.dust storm() { println(bad weather!) } } has type Mars inside the body of the if statement. This is known as flow-sensitive typing If w is a mutable

identifier, it would be unsafe if the compiler smart casts it without a warning. Thats why you have to declare a mut before the is expression: w if mut w is Mars { assert typeof(w).name == Mars if w.dust storm() { println(bad weather!) } } Otherwise w would keep its original type. This works for both, simple variables and complex expressions like user.name Matching sum types You can also use match to determine the variant: struct Moon {} struct Mars {} struct Venus {} type World = Mars | Moon | Venus fn open parachutes(n int) { println(n) } fn land(w World) { match w { Moon {} // no atmosphere Mars { // light atmosphere open parachutes(3) } Venus { // heavy atmosphere open parachutes(1) } } } match must have struct Moon {} a pattern for each variant or have an else branch. struct Mars {} struct Venus {} type World = Moon | Mars | Venus fn (m Moon) moon walk() {} fn (m Mars) shiver() {} fn (v Venus) sweat() {} fn pass time(w World) { match w { // using the shadowed match

variable, in this case `w` (smart cast) Moon { w.moon walk() } Mars { w.shiver() } else {} } } Type aliases To define a new type NewType as an alias for ExistingType, do type NewType = ExistingType. This is a special case of a sum type declaration. Option/Result types and error handling Option types are declared with ?Type: struct User { id int name string } struct Repo { users []User } fn (r Repo) find user by id(id int) ?User { for user in r.users { if user.id == id { // V automatically wraps this into an option type return user } } return error(User $id not found) } fn main() { repo := Repo{ users: [User{1, Andrew}, User{2, Bob}, User{10, Charles}] } user := repo.find user by id(10) or { // Option types must be handled by `or` blocks return } println(user.id) // "10" println(user.name) // "Charles" } V combines Option and Result into one type, so you dont need to decide which one to use. The amount of work required to "upgrade" a function to an

optional function is minimal; you have to add a ? to the return type and return an error when something goes wrong. If you dont need to return an error message, you can simply return none (this is a more efficient equivalent of return error("")). This is the primary mechanism for error handling in V. They are still values, like in Go, but the advantage is that errors cant be unhandled, and handling them is a lot less verbose. Unlike other languages, V does not handle exceptions with throw/try/catch blocks. err is defined inside an or block and is set to the string message passed to the error() function. err is empty if none was returned. user := repo.find user by id(7) or { println(err) // "User 7 not found" return } Handling optionals There are four ways of handling an optional. The first method is to propagate the error: import net.http fn f(url string) ?string { resp := http.get(url) ? return resp.text } returns ?http.Response Because ? follows the call, the

error will be propagated to the caller of f When using ? after a function call producing an optional, the enclosing function must return an optional as well. If error propagation is used in the main() function it will panic instead, since the error cannot be propagated any further. The body of f is essentially a condensed version of: http.get resp := http.get(url) or { return err } return resp.text The second method is to break from execution early: user := repo.find user by id(7) or { return } Here, you can either call panic() or exit(), which will stop the execution of the entire program, or use a control flow statement (return, break, continue, etc) to break from the current block. Note that break and continue can only be used inside a for loop V does not have a way to forcibly "unwrap" an optional (as other languages do, for instance Rusts unwrap() or Swifts !). To do this, use or { panic(err.msg) } instead The third method is to provide a default value at the end of

the or block. In case of an error, that value would be assigned instead, so it must have the same type as the content of the Option being handled. fn do something(s string) ?string { if s == foo { return foo } return error(invalid string) // Could be `return none` as well } a := do something(foo) or { default } // a will be foo b := do something(bar) or { default } // b will be default println(a) println(b) The fourth method is to use if unwrapping: import net.http if resp := http.get(https://googlecom) { println(resp.text) // resp is a httpResponse, not an optional } else { println(err) } Above, http.get returns a ?httpResponse resp is only in scope for the first if branch err is only in scope for the else branch Custom error types V gives you the ability to define custom error types through the IError interface. The interface requires two methods: msg() string and code() int. Every type that implements these methods can be used as an error When defining a custom error type it

is recommended to embed the builtin Error default implementation. This provides an empty default implementation for both required methods, so you only have to implement what you really need, and may provide additional utility functions in the future. struct PathError { Error path string } fn (err PathError) msg() string { return Failed to open path: $err.path } fn try open(path string) ? { return IError(PathError{ path: path }) } fn main() { try open(/tmp) or { panic(err) } } Generics struct Repo<T> { db DB } struct User { id int name string } struct Post { id int user id int title string body string } fn new repo<T>(db DB) Repo<T> { return Repo<T>{db: db} } // This is a generic function. V will generate it for every type its used with fn (r Repo<T>) find by id(id int) ?T { table name := T.name // in this example getting the name of the type gives us the table name return r.dbquery one<T>(select * from $table name where id = ?, id) } db :=

new db() users repo := new repo<User>(db) // returns Repo<User> posts repo := new repo<Post>(db) // returns Repo<Post> user := users repo.find by id(1)? // find by id<User> post := posts repo.find by id(1)? // find by id<Post> Currently generic function definitions must declare their type parameters, but in future V will infer generic type parameters from single-letter type names in runtime parameter types. This is why find by id can omit <T>, because the receiver argument r uses a generic type T. Another example: fn compare<T>(a T, b T) int { if a < b { return -1 } if a > b { return 1 } return 0 } // compare<int> println(compare(1, 0)) // Outputs: 1 println(compare(1, 1)) // 0 println(compare(1, 2)) // -1 // compare<string> println(compare(1, 0)) // Outputs: 1 println(compare(1, 1)) // 0 println(compare(1, 2)) // -1 // compare<f64> println(compare(1.1, 10)) // Outputs: 1 println(compare(1.1, 11)) // 0

println(compare(1.1, 12)) // -1 Concurrency Spawning Concurrent Tasks Vs model of concurrency is very similar to Gos. To run foo() concurrently in a different thread, just call it with go foo(): import math fn p(a f64, b f64) { // ordinary function without return value c := math.sqrt(a * a + b b) println(c) } fn main() { go p(3, 4) // p will be run in parallel thread } Sometimes it is necessary to wait until a parallel thread has finished. This can be done by assigning a handle to the started thread and calling the wait() method to this handle later: import math fn p(a f64, b f64) { // ordinary function without return value c := math.sqrt(a * a + b b) println(c) // prints `5` } fn main() { h := go p(3, 4) // p() runs in parallel thread h.wait() // p() has definitely finished } This approach can also be used to get a return value from a function that is run in a parallel thread. There is no need to modify the function itself to be able to call it concurrently. import math {

sqrt } fn get hypot(a f64, b f64) f64 { // ordinary function returning a value c := sqrt(a * a + b b) return c } fn main() { g := go get hypot(54.06, 208) // spawn thread and get handle to it h1 := get hypot(2.32, 1674) // do some other calculation here h2 := g.wait() // get result from spawned thread println(Results: $h1, $h2) // prints `Results: 16.9, 541` } If there is a large number of tasks, it might be easier to manage them using an array of threads. import time fn task(id int, duration int) { println(task $id begin) time.sleep(duration * time.millisecond) println(task $id end) } fn main() { mut threads := []thread{} threads << go task(1, 500) threads << go task(2, 900) threads << go task(3, 100) threads.wait() println(done) } // Output: // task 1 begin // task 2 begin // task 3 begin // task 3 end // task 1 end // task 2 end // done Additionally for threads that return the same type, calling wait() on the thread array will return all computed

values. fn expensive computing(i int) int { return i * i } fn main() { mut threads := []thread int{} for i in 1 . 10 { threads << go expensive computing(i) } // Join all tasks r := threads.wait() println(All jobs finished: $r) } // Output: All jobs finished: [1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, 49, 64, 81] Channels Channels are the preferred way to communicate between threads. Vs channels work basically like those in Go You can push objects into a channel on one end and pop objects from the other end. Channels can be buffered or unbuffered and it is possible to select from multiple channels. Syntax and Usage Channels have the type chan objtype. An optional buffer length can specified as the cap field in the declaration: ch := chan int{} // unbuffered - "synchronous" ch2 := chan f64{cap: 100} // buffer length 100 Channels do not have to be declared as mut. The buffer length is not part of the type but a field of the individual channel object. Channels can be passed to threads like

normal variables: fn f(ch chan int) { // . } fn main() { ch := chan int{} go f(ch) // . } Objects can be pushed to channels using the arrow operator. The same operator can be used to pop objects from the other end: // make buffered channels so pushing does not block (if there is room in the buffer) ch := chan int{cap: 1} ch2 := chan f64{cap: 1} n := 5 // push ch <- n ch2 <- 7.3 mut y := f64(0.0) m := <-ch // pop creating new variable y = <-ch2 // pop into existing variable A channel can be closed to indicate that no further objects can be pushed. Any attempt to do so will then result in a runtime panic (with the exception of select and try push() - see below). Attempts to pop will return immediately if the associated channel has been closed and the buffer is empty. This situation can be handled using an or branch (see Handling Optionals). ch := chan int{} ch2 := chan f64{} // . ch.close() // . m := <-ch or { println(channel has been closed) } // propagate error y

:= <-ch2 ? Channel Select The select command allows monitoring several channels at the same time without noticeable CPU load. It consists of a list of possible transfers and associated branches of statements - similar to the match command: import time fn main() { ch := chan f64{} ch2 := chan f64{} ch3 := chan f64{} mut b := 0.0 c := 1.0 // . setup go threads that will send on ch/ch2 go fn (the channel chan f64) { time.sleep(5 * time.millisecond) the channel <- 1.0 }(ch) go fn (the channel chan f64) { time.sleep(1 * time.millisecond) the channel <- 1.0 }(ch2) go fn (the channel chan f64) { := <-the channel }(ch3) select { a := <-ch { // do something with `a` eprintln(> a: $a) } b = <-ch2 { // do something with predeclared variable `b` eprintln(> b: $b) } ch3 <- c { // do something if `c` was sent time.sleep(5 * time.millisecond) eprintln(> c: $c was send on channel ch3) } 500 * time.millisecond { // do something if no channel has become ready within

0.5s eprintln(> more than 0.5s passed without a channel being ready) } } eprintln(> done) } The timeout branch is optional. If it is absent select waits for an unlimited amount of time It is also possible to proceed immediately if no channel is ready in the moment select is called by adding an else { . } branch else and <timeout> are mutually exclusive. The select command can be used as an expression of type bool that becomes false if all channels are closed: if select { ch <- a { // . } }{ // channel was open } else { // channel is closed } Special Channel Features For special purposes there are some builtin fields and methods: struct Abc { x int } a := 2.13 ch := chan f64{} res := ch.try push(a) // try to perform `ch <- a` println(res) l := ch.len // number of elements in queue c := ch.cap // maximum queue length is closed := ch.closed // bool flag - has `ch` been closed println(l) println(c) mut b := Abc{} ch2 := chan Abc{} res2 := ch2.try pop(mut b) // try to

perform `b = <-ch2` The try push/pop() methods will return immediately with one of the results .success, not ready or closed - dependent on whether the object has been transferred or the reason why not. Usage of these methods and fields in production is not recommended - algorithms based on them are often subject to race conditions. Especially len and closed should not be used to make decisions. Use or branches, error propagation or select instead (see Syntax and Usage and Channel Select above) Shared Objects Data can be exchanged between a thread and the calling thread via a shared variable. Such variables should be created as shared and passed to the thread as such, too. The underlying struct contains a hidden mutex that allows locking concurrent access using rlock for read-only and lock for read/write access. struct St { mut: x int // data to be shared } fn (shared b St) g() { lock b { // read/modify/write b.x } } fn main() { shared a := St{ x: 10 } go a.g() // . rlock a { //

read a.x } } Shared variables must be structs, arrays or maps. JSON Because of the ubiquitous nature of JSON, support for it is built directly into V. V generates code for JSON encoding and decoding. No runtime reflection is used This results in much better performance Decoding JSON import json struct Foo { x int } struct User { // Adding a [required] attribute will make decoding fail, if that // field is not present in the input. // If a field is not [required], but is missing, it will be assumed // to have its default value, like 0 for numbers, or for strings, // and decoding will not fail. name string [required] age int // Use the `skip` attribute to skip certain fields foo Foo [skip] // If the field name is different in JSON, it can be specified last name string [json: lastName] } data := { "name": "Frodo", "lastName": "Baggins", "age": 25 } user := json.decode(User, data) or { eprintln(Failed to decode json, error: $err)

return } println(user.name) println(user.last name) println(user.age) // You can also decode JSON arrays: sfoos := [{"x":123},{"x":456}] foos := json.decode([]Foo, sfoos) ? println(foos[0].x) println(foos[1].x) The json.decode function takes two arguments: the first is the type into which the JSON value should be decoded and the second is a string containing the JSON data. Encoding JSON import json struct User { name string score i64 } mut data := map[string]int{} user := &User{ name: Pierre score: 1024 } data[x] = 42 data[y] = 360 println(json.encode(data)) // {"x":42,"y":360} println(json.encode(user)) // {"name":"Pierre","score":1024} Testing Asserts fn foo(mut v []int) { v[0] = 1 } mut v := [20] foo(mut v) assert v[0] < 4 An assert statement checks that its expression evaluates to true. If an assert fails, the program will abort Asserts should only be used to detect programming errors. When an

assert fails it is reported to stderr, and the values on each side of a comparison operator (such as <, ==) will be printed when possible. This is useful to easily find an unexpected value Assert statements can be used in any function. Test files // hello.v module main fn hello() string { return Hello world } fn main() { println(hello()) } // hello test.v module main fn test hello() { assert hello() == Hello world } To run the test above, use v hello test.v This will check that the function hello is producing the correct output V executes all test functions in the file. •All test functions have to be inside a test file whose name ends in test.v •Test function names must begin with test to mark them for execution. •Normal functions can also be defined in test files, and should be called manually. Other symbols can also be defined in test files e.g types •There are two kinds of tests: external and internal. •Internal tests must declare their module, just like all

other .v files from the same module Internal tests can even call private functions in the same module. •External tests must import the modules which they test. They do not have access to the private functions/types of the modules. They can test only the external/public API that a module provides In the example above, test hello is an internal test, that can call the private function hello() because hello test.v has module main, just like hello.v, ie both are part of the same module Note also that since module main is a regular module like the others, internal tests can be used to test private functions in your main program .v files too You can also define these special test functions in a test file: •testsuite begin which will be run before all other test functions. •testsuite end which will be run after all other test functions. If a test function has an error return type, any propagated errors will fail the test: import strconv fn test atoi() ? { assert strconv.atoi(1) ?

== 1 assert strconv.atoi(one) ? == 1 // test will fail } Running tests To run test functions in an individual test file, use v foo test.v To test an entire module, use v test mymodule. You can also use v test to test everything inside your current folder (and subfolders). You can pass the -stats option to see more details about the individual tests run You can put additional test data, including .v source files in a folder, named testdata, right next to your testv files Vs test framework will ignore such folders, while scanning for tests to run. This is useful, if you want to put v files with invalid V source code, or other tests, including known failing ones, that should be run in a specific way/options by a parent test.v file NB: the path to the V compiler, is available through @VEXE, so a test.v file, can easily run other test files like this: import os fn test subtest() { res := os.execute(${osquoted path(@VEXE)} other testv) assert res.exit code == 1 assert

res.outputcontains(other testv does not exist) } Memory management V avoids doing unnecessary allocations in the first place by using value types, string buffers, promoting a simple abstraction-free code style. Most objects (~90-100%) are freed by Vs autofree engine: the compiler inserts necessary free calls automatically during compilation. Remaining small percentage of objects is freed via reference counting The developer doesnt need to change anything in their code. "It just works", like in Python, Go, or Java, except theres no heavy GC tracing everything or expensive RC for each object. Control You can take advantage of Vs autofree engine and define a free() method on custom data types: struct MyType {} [unsafe] fn (data &MyType) free() { // . } Just as the compiler frees C data types with Cs free(), it will statically insert free() calls for your data type at the end of each variables lifetime. For developers willing to have more low level control, autofree can

be disabled with -manualfree, or by adding a [manualfree] on each function that wants manage its memory manually. (See attributes) Note: right now autofree is hidden behind the -autofree flag. It will be enabled by default in V 03 If autofree is not used, V programs will leak memory. Note 2: Autofree is still WIP. Until it stabilises and becomes the default, please compile your long running processes with -gc boehm, which will use the Boehm-Demers-Weiser conservative garbage collector, to free the memory, that your programs leak, at runtime. Examples import strings fn draw text(s string, x int, y int) { // . } fn draw scene() { // . name1 := abc name2 := def ghi draw text(hello $name1, 10, 10) draw text(hello $name2, 100, 10) draw text(strings.repeat(`X`, 10000), 10, 50) // . } The strings dont escape draw text, so they are cleaned up when the function exits. In fact, with the -prealloc flag, the first two calls wont result in any allocations at all. These two strings are small,

so V will use a preallocated buffer for them. struct User { name string } fn test() []int { number := 7 // stack variable user := User{} // struct allocated on stack numbers := [1, 2, 3] // array allocated on heap, will be freed as the function exits println(number) println(user) println(numbers) numbers2 := [4, 5, 6] // array thats being returned, wont be freed here return numbers2 } Stack and Heap Stack and Heap Basics Like with most other programming languages there are two locations where data can be stored: •The stack allows fast allocations with almost zero administrative overhead. The stack grows and shrinks with the function call depth – so every called function has its stack segment that remains valid until the function returns. No freeing is necessary, however, this also means that a reference to a stack object becomes invalid on function return. Furthermore stack space is limited (typically to a few Megabytes per thread). •The heap is a large memory area

(typically some Gigabytes) that is administrated by the operating system. Heap objects are allocated and freed by special function calls that delegate the administrative tasks to the OS. This means that they can remain valid across several function calls, however, the administration is expensive. Vs default approach Due to performance considerations V tries to put objects on the stack if possible but allocates them on the heap when obviously necessary. Example: struct MyStruct { n int } struct RefStruct { r &MyStruct } fn main() { q, w := f() println(q: $q.rn, w: $wn) } fn f() (RefStruct, &MyStruct) { a := MyStruct{ n: 1 } b := MyStruct{ n: 2 } c := MyStruct{ n: 3 } e := RefStruct{ r: &b } x := a.n + cn println(x: $x) return e, &c } Here a is stored on the stack since its address never leaves the function f(). However a reference to b is part of e which is returned. Also a reference to c is returned For this reason b and c will be heap allocated Things become less

obvious when a reference to an object is passed as function argument: struct MyStruct { mut: n int } fn main() { mut q := MyStruct{ n: 7 } w := MyStruct{ n: 13 } x := q.f(&w) // references of `q` and `w` are passed println(q: $q x: $x) } fn (mut a MyStruct) f(b &MyStruct) int { a.n += bn x := a.n * b.n return x } Here the call q.f(&w) passes references to q and w because a is mut and b is of type &MyStruct in f()s declaration, so technically these references are leaving main(). However the lifetime of these references lies inside the scope of main() so q and w are allocated on the stack. Manual Control for Stack and Heap In the last example the V compiler could put q and w on the stack because it assumed that in the call q.f(&w) these references were only used for reading and modifying the referred values – and not to pass the references themselves somewhere else. This can be seen in a way that the references to q and w are only borrowed to f(). Things become

different if f() is doing something with a reference itself: struct RefStruct { mut: r &MyStruct } // see discussion below [heap] struct MyStruct { n int } fn main() { m := MyStruct{} mut r := RefStruct{ r: &m } r.g() println(r: $r) } fn (mut r RefStruct) g() { s := MyStruct{ n: 7 } r.f(&s) // reference to `s` inside `r` is passed back to `main() ` } fn (mut r RefStruct) f(s &MyStruct) { r.r = s // would trigger error without `[heap]` } Here f() looks quite innocent but is doing nasty things – it inserts a reference to s into r. The problem with this is that s lives only as long as g() is running but r is used in main() after that. For this reason the compiler would complain about the assignment in f() because s "might refer to an object stored on stack". The assumption made in g() that the call rf(&s) would only borrow the reference to s is wrong. A solution to this dilemma is the [heap] attribute at the declaration of struct MyStruct. It

instructs the compiler to always allocate MyStruct-objects on the heap. This way the reference to s remains valid even after g() returns The compiler takes into consideration that MyStruct objects are always heap allocated when checking f() and allows assigning the reference to s to the r.r field There is a pattern often seen in other programming languages: fn (mut a MyStruct) f() &MyStruct { // do something with a return &a // would return address of borrowed object } Here f() is passed a reference a as receiver that is passed back to the caller and returned as result at the same time. The intention behind such a declaration is method chaining like y = x.f()g() However, the problem with this approach is that a second reference to a is created – so it is not only borrowed and MyStruct has to be declared as [heap]. In V the better approach is: struct MyStruct { mut: n int } fn (mut a MyStruct) f() { // do something with `a` } fn (mut a MyStruct) g() { // do something else

with `a` } fn main() { x := MyStruct{} // stack allocated mut y := x y.f() y.g() // instead of `mut y := x.f()g() } This way the [heap] attribute can be avoided – resulting in better performance. However, stack space is very limited as mentioned above. For this reason the [heap] attribute might be suitable for very large structures even if not required by use cases like those mentioned above. There is an alternative way to manually control allocation on a case to case basis. This approach is not recommended but shown here for the sake of completeness: struct MyStruct { n int } struct RefStruct { mut: r &MyStruct } // simple function - just to overwrite stack segment previously used by `g()` fn use stack() { x := 7.5 y := 3.25 z := x + y println($x $y $z) } fn main() { m := MyStruct{} mut r := RefStruct{ r: &m } r.g() use stack() // to erase invalid stack contents println(r: $r) } fn (mut r RefStruct) g() { s := &MyStruct{ // `s` explicitly refers to a heap object

n: 7 } // change `&MyStruct` -> `MyStruct` above and `r.f(s)` -> `rf(&s)` below // to see data in stack segment being overwritten r.f(s) } fn (mut r RefStruct) f(s &MyStruct) { r.r = unsafe { s } // override compiler check } Here the compiler check is suppressed by the unsafe block. To make s be heap allocated even without [heap] attribute the struct literal is prefixed with an ampersand: &MyStruct{.} This last step would not be required by the compiler but without it the reference inside r becomes invalid (the memory area pointed to will be overwritten by use stack()) and the program might crash (or at least produce an unpredictable final output). Thats why this approach is unsafe and should be avoided! ORM (This is still in an alpha state) V has a built-in ORM (object-relational mapping) which supports SQLite, MySQL and Postgres, but soon it will support MS SQL and Oracle. Vs ORM provides a number of benefits: •One syntax for all SQL dialects. (Migrating

between databases becomes much easier) •Queries are constructed using Vs syntax. (Theres no need to learn another syntax) •Safety. (All queries are automatically sanitised to prevent SQL injection) •Compile time checks. (This prevents typos which can only be caught during runtime) •Readability and simplicity. (You dont need to manually parse the results of a query and then manually construct objects from the parsed results.) import sqlite // sets a custom table name. Default is struct name (case-sensitive) [table: customers] struct Customer { id name int [primary; sql: serial] // a field named `id` of integer type must be the first field string [nonull] nr orders int country string [nonull] } db := sqlite.connect(customersdb) ? // you can create tables: // CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS `Customer` ( // `id` INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, // `name` TEXT NOT NULL, // `nr orders` INTEGER, // `country` TEXT NOT NULL // ) sql db { create table Customer } // select count(*) from

customers nr customers := sql db { select count from Customer } println(number of all customers: $nr customers) // V syntax can be used to build queries uk customers := sql db { select from Customer where country == uk && nr orders > 0 } println(uk customers.len) for customer in uk customers { println($customer.id - $customername) } // by adding `limit 1` we tell V that there will be only one object customer := sql db { select from Customer where id == 1 limit 1 } println($customer.id - $customername) // insert a new customer new customer := Customer{ name: Bob nr orders: 10 } sql db { insert new customer into Customer } For more examples and the docs, see vlib/orm. Writing Documentation The way it works is very similar to Go. Its very simple: theres no need to write documentation separately for your code, vdoc will generate it from docstrings in the source code. Documentation for each function/type/const must be placed right before the declaration: // clearall clears

all bits in the array fn clearall() { } The comment must start with the name of the definition. Sometimes one line isnt enough to explain what a function does, in that case comments should span to the documented function using single line comments: // copy all recursively copies all elements of the array by their value, // if `dupes` is false all duplicate values are eliminated in the process. fn copy all(dupes bool) { // . } By convention it is preferred that comments are written in present tense. An overview of the module must be placed in the first comment right after the modules name. To generate documentation use vdoc, for example v doc net.http Newlines in Documentation Comments Comments spanning multiple lines are merged together using spaces, unless •the line is empty •the line ends with a . (end of sentence) •the line is purely of at least 3 of -, =, , *, ~ (horizontal rule) •the line starts with at least one # followed by a space (header) •the line starts and

ends with a | (table) •the line starts with - (list) Tools v fmt You dont need to worry about formatting your code or setting style guidelines. v fmt takes care of that: v fmt file.v Its recommended to set up your editor, so that v fmt -w runs on every save. A vfmt run is usually pretty cheap (takes <30ms) Always run v fmt -w file.v before pushing your code v shader You can use GPU shaders with V graphical apps. You write your shaders in an annotated GLSL dialect and use v shader to compile them for all supported target platforms. v shader /path/to/project/dir/or/file.v Currently you need to include a header and declare a glue function before using the shader in your code. Profiling V has good support for profiling your programs: v -profile profile.txt run filev That will produce a profiletxt file, which you can then analyze. The generated profile.txt file will have lines with 4 columns: a) how many times a function was called b) how much time in total a function took (in

ms) c) how much time on average, a call to a function took (in ns) d) the name of the v function You can sort on column 3 (average time per function) using: sort -n -k3 profile.txt|tail You can also use stopwatches to measure just portions of your code explicitly: import time fn main() { sw := time.new stopwatch() println(Hello world) println(Greeting the world took: ${sw.elapsed()nanoseconds()}ns) } Package management v [module option] [param] module options: install Install a module from VPM. remove Remove a module that was installed from VPM. search Search for a module from VPM. update Update an installed module from VPM. upgrade list Upgrade all the outdated modules. List all installed modules. outdated Show installed modules that need updates. You can install modules already created by someone else with VPM: v install [module] Example: v install ui Modules can be installed directly from git or mercurial repositories. v install [--git|--hg] [url] Example: v

install --git https://github.com/vlang/markdown Removing a module with v: v remove [module] Example: v remove ui Updating an installed module from VPM: v update [module] Example: v update ui Or you can update all your modules: v update To see all the modules you have installed, you can use: v list Example: > v list Installed modules: markdown ui To see all the modules that need updates: v outdated Example: > v outdated Modules are up to date. Publish package 1.Put a vmod file inside the toplevel folder of your module (if you created your module with the command v new mymodule or v init v new mymodule you already have a v.mod file) Input your project description: My nice module. Input your project version: (0.00) 001 Input your project license: (MIT) Initialising . Complete! Example v.mod: Module { name: mymodule description: My nice module. version: 0.01 license: MIT dependencies: [] } Minimal file structure: v.mod mymodule.v The name of your module should be used

with the module directive at the top of all files in your module. For mymodule.v: module mymodule pub fn hello world() { println(Hello World!) } 2.Create a git repository in the folder with the vmod file (this is not required if you used v new or v init): git init git add . git commit -m "INIT" 3.Create a public repository on githubcom 4.Connect your local repository to the remote repository and push the changes 5.Add your module to the public V module registry VPM: https://vpmvlangio/new You will have to login with your Github account to register the module. Warning: Currently it is not possible to edit your entry after submitting. Check your module name and github url twice as this cannot be changed by you later 6.The final module name is a combination of your github account and the module name you provided e.g mygithubnamemymodule Optional: tag your V module with vlang and vlang-module on github.com to allow for a better search experience Advanced Topics Dumping

expressions at runtime You can dump/trace the value of any V expression using dump(expr). For example, save this code sample as factorialv, then run it with v run factorial.v: fn factorial(n u32) u32 { if dump(n <= 1) { return dump(1) } return dump(n * factorial(n - 1)) } fn main() { println(factorial(5)) } You will get: [factorial.v:2] n <= 1: false [factorial.v:2] n <= 1: false [factorial.v:2] n <= 1: false [factorial.v:2] n <= 1: false [factorial.v:2] n <= 1: true [factorial.v:3] 1: 1 [factorial.v:5] n * factorial(n - 1): 2 [factorial.v:5] n * factorial(n - 1): 6 [factorial.v:5] n * factorial(n - 1): 24 [factorial.v:5] n * factorial(n - 1): 120 120 Note that dump(expr) will trace both the source location, the expression itself, and the expression value. Memory-unsafe code Sometimes for efficiency you may want to write low-level code that can potentially corrupt memory or be vulnerable to security exploits. V supports writing such code, but not by default V

requires that any potentially memory-unsafe operations are marked intentionally. Marking them also indicates to anyone reading the code that there could be memory-safety violations if there was a mistake. Examples of potentially memory-unsafe operations are: •Pointer arithmetic •Pointer indexing •Conversion to pointer from an incompatible type •Calling certain C functions, e.g free, strlen and strncmp To mark potentially memory-unsafe operations, enclose them in an unsafe block: // allocate 2 uninitialized bytes & return a reference to them mut p := unsafe { malloc(2) } p[0] = `h` // Error: pointer indexing is only allowed in `unsafe` blocks unsafe { p[0] = `h` // OK p[1] = `i` } p++ // Error: pointer arithmetic is only allowed in `unsafe` blocks unsafe { p++ // OK } assert *p == `i` Best practice is to avoid putting memory-safe expressions inside an unsafe block, so that the reason for using unsafe is as clear as possible. Generally any code you think is memory-safe

should not be inside an unsafe block, so the compiler can verify it. If you suspect your program does violate memory-safety, you have a head start on finding the cause: look at the unsafe blocks (and how they interact with surrounding code). •Note: This is work in progress. Structs with reference fields Structs with references require explicitly setting the initial value to a reference value unless the struct already defines its own initial value. Zero-value references, or nil pointers, will NOT be supported in the future, for now data structures such as Linked Lists or Binary Trees that rely on reference fields that can use the value 0, understanding that it is unsafe, and that it can cause a panic. struct Node { a &Node b &Node = 0 // Auto-initialized to nil, use with caution! } // Reference fields must be initialized unless an initial value is declared. // Zero (0) is OK but use with caution, its a nil pointer. foo := Node{ a: 0 } bar := Node{ a: &foo } baz := Node{

a: 0 b: 0 } qux := Node{ a: &foo b: &bar } println(baz) println(qux) sizeof and offsetof •sizeof(Type) gives the size of a type in bytes. • offsetof(Struct, field name) gives the offset in bytes of a struct field. struct Foo { a int b int } assert sizeof(Foo) == 8 assert offsetof(Foo, a) == 0 assert offsetof(Foo, b) == 4 Calling C from V Example #flag -lsqlite3 #include "sqlite3.h" // See also the example from https://www.sqliteorg/quickstarthtml struct C.sqlite3 { } struct C.sqlite3 stmt { } type FnSqlite3Callback = fn (voidptr, int, &&char, &&char) int fn C.sqlite3 open(&char, &&Csqlite3) int fn C.sqlite3 close(&Csqlite3) int fn C.sqlite3 column int(stmt &Csqlite3 stmt, n int) int // . you can also just define the type of parameter and leave out the C prefix fn C.sqlite3 prepare v2(&Csqlite3, &char, int, &&Csqlite3 stmt, &&char) int fn C.sqlite3 step(&Csqlite3 stmt) fn C.sqlite3

finalize(&Csqlite3 stmt) fn C.sqlite3 exec(db &Csqlite3, sql &char, cb FnSqlite3Callback, cb arg voidptr, emsg &&char) int fn C.sqlite3 free(voidptr) fn my callback(arg voidptr, howmany int, cvalues &&char, cnames &&char) int { unsafe { for i in 0 . howmany { print(| ${cstring to vstring(cnames[i])}: ${cstring to vstring(cvalues[i]):20} ) } } println(|) return 0 } fn main() { db := &C.sqlite3(0) // this means `sqlite3* db = 0` // passing a string literal to a C function call results in a C string, not a V string C.sqlite3 open(cusersdb, &db) // C.sqlite3 open(db pathstr, &db) query := select count(*) from users stmt := &C.sqlite3 stmt(0) // NB: you can also use the `.str` field of a V string, // to get its C style zero terminated representation C.sqlite3 prepare v2(db, &char(querystr), -1, &stmt, 0) C.sqlite3 step(stmt) nr users := C.sqlite3 column int(stmt, 0) C.sqlite3 finalize(stmt) println(There are $nr users users in

the database.) // error msg := &char(0) query all users := select * from users rc := C.sqlite3 exec(db, &char(query all usersstr), my callback, voidptr(7), &error msg) if rc != C.SQLITE OK { eprintln(unsafe { cstring to vstring(error msg) }) C.sqlite3 free(error msg) } C.sqlite3 close(db) } Calling V from C Since V can compile to C, calling V code from C is very easy. By default all V functions have the following naming scheme in C: [module name] [fn name]. For example, fn foo() {} in module bar will result in bar foo(). To use a custom export name, use the [export] attribute: [export: my custom c name] fn foo() { } Atomics V has no special support for atomics, yet, nevertheless its possible to treat variables as atomics by calling C functions from V. The standard C11 atomic functions like atomic store() are usually defined with the help of macros and C compiler magic to provide a kind of overloaded C functions. Since V does not support overloading functions by

intention there are wrapper functions defined in C headers named atomic.h that are part of the V compiler infrastructure There are dedicated wrappers for all unsigned integer types and for pointers. (byte is not fully supported on Windows) – the function names include the type name as suffix. eg Catomic load ptr() or Catomic fetch add u64() To use these functions the C header for the used OS has to be included and the functions that are intended to be used have to be declared. Example: $if windows { #include "@VEXEROOT/thirdparty/stdatomic/win/atomic.h" } $else { #include "@VEXEROOT/thirdparty/stdatomic/nix/atomic.h" } // declare functions we want to use - V does not parse the C header fn C.atomic store u32(&u32, u32) fn C.atomic load u32(&u32) u32 fn C.atomic compare exchange weak u32(&u32, &u32, u32) bool fn C.atomic compare exchange strong u32(&u32, &u32, u32) bool const num iterations = 10000000 // see section "Global

Variables" below global ( atom u32 // ordinary variable but used as atomic ) fn change() int { mut races won by change := 0 for { mut cmp := u32(17) // addressable value to compare with and to store the found value // atomic version of `if atom == 17 { atom = 23 races won by change++ } else { cmp = atom }` if C.atomic compare exchange strong u32(&atom, &cmp, 23) { races won by change++ } else { if cmp == 31 { break } cmp = 17 // re-assign because overwritten with value of atom } } return races won by change } fn main() { C.atomic store u32(&atom, 17) t := go change() mut races won by main := 0 mut cmp17 := u32(17) mut cmp23 := u32(23) for i in 0 . num iterations { // atomic version of `if atom == 17 { atom = 23 races won by main++ }` if C.atomic compare exchange strong u32(&atom, &cmp17, 23) { races won by main++ } else { cmp17 = 17 } desir := if i == num iterations - 1 { u32(31) } else { u32(17) } // atomic version of `for atom != 23 {} atom = desir` for

!C.atomic compare exchange weak u32(&atom, &cmp23, desir) { cmp23 = 23 } } races won by change := t.wait() atom new := C.atomic load u32(&atom) println(atom: $atom new, #exchanges: ${races won by main + races won by change}) // prints `atom: 31, #exchanges: 10000000`) println(races won by - `main()`: $races won by main - `change()`: $races won by change) } In this example both main() and the spawned thread change() try to replace a value of 17 in the global atom with a value of 23. The replacement in the opposite direction is done exactly 10000000 times. The last replacement will be with 31 which makes the spawned thread finish. It is not predictable how many replacements occur in which thread, but the sum will always be 10000000. (With the nonatomic commands from the comments the value will be higher or the program will hang – dependent on the compiler optimization used.) Global Variables By default V does not allow global variables. However, in low level applications

they have their place so their usage can be enabled with the compiler flag -enable-globals. Declarations of global variables must be surrounded with a global ( . ) specification – as in the example above An initializer for global variables must be explicitly converted to the desired target type. If no initializer is given a default initialization is done. Some objects like semaphores and mutexes require an explicit initialization in place, ie not with a value returned from a function call but with a method call by reference. A separate init() function can be used for this purpose – it will be called before main(): import sync global ( sem sync.Semaphore // needs initialization in `init()` mtx sync.RwMutex // needs initialization in `init()` f1 = f64(34.0625) // explicily initialized shmap shared map[string]f64 // initialized as empty `shared` map f2 ) f64 // initialized to `0.0` fn init() { sem.init(0) mtx.init() } Be aware that in multi threaded applications the access

to global variables is subject to race conditions. There are several approaches to deal with these: •use shared types for the variable declarations and use lock blocks for access. This is most appropriate for larger objects like structs, arrays or maps. •handle primitive data types as "atomics" using special C-functions (see above). •use explicit synchronization primitives like mutexes to control access. The compiler cannot really help in this case, so you have to know what you are doing. •dont care – this approach is possible but makes only sense if the exact values of global variables do not really matter. An example can be found in the rand module where global variables are used to generate (non cryptographic) pseudo random numbers. In this case data races lead to random numbers in different threads becoming somewhat correlated, which is acceptable considering the performance penalty that using synchonization primitives would represent. Passing C compilation

flags Add #flag directives to the top of your V files to provide C compilation flags like: •-I for adding C include files search paths •-l for adding C library names that you want to get linked •-L for adding C library files search paths •-D for setting compile time variables You can (optionally) use different flags for different targets. Currently the linux, darwin , freebsd, and windows flags are supported. NB: Each flag must go on its own line (for now) #flag linux -lsdl2 #flag linux -Ivig #flag linux -DCIMGUI DEFINE ENUMS AND STRUCTS=1 #flag linux -DIMGUI DISABLE OBSOLETE FUNCTIONS=1 #flag linux -DIMGUI IMPL API= In the console build command, you can use: •-cflags to pass custom flags to the backend C compiler. •-cc to change the default C backend compiler. •For example: -cc gcc-9 -cflags -fsanitize=thread. You can define a VFLAGS environment variable in your terminal to store your -cc and -cflags settings, rather than including them in the build command each time.

#pkgconfig Add #pkgconfig directive is used to tell the compiler which modules should be used for compiling and linking using the pkgconfig files provided by the respective dependencies. As long as backticks cant be used in #flag and spawning processes is not desirable for security and portability reasons, V uses its own pkgconfig library that is compatible with the standard freedesktop one. If no flags are passed it will add --cflags and --libs, both lines below do the same: #pkgconfig r core #pkgconfig --cflags --libs r core The .pc files are looked up into a hardcoded list of default pkg-config paths, the user can add extra paths by using the PKG CONFIG PATH environment variable. Multiple modules can be passed To check the existence of a pkg-config use $pkgconfig(pkg) as a compile time "if" condition to check if a pkg-config exists. If it exists the branch will be created. Use $else or $else $if to handle other cases $if $pkgconfig(mysqlclient) { #pkgconfig mysqlclient }

$else $if $pkgconfig(mariadb) { #pkgconfig mariadb } Including C code You can also include C code directly in your V module. For example, lets say that your C code is located in a folder named c inside your module folder. Then: •Put a v.mod file inside the toplevel folder of your module (if you created your module with v new you already have v.mod file) For example: Module { name: mymodule, description: My nice module wraps a simple C library., version: 0.01 dependencies: [] } •Add these lines to the top of your module: #flag -I @VMODROOT/c #flag @VMODROOT/c/implementation.o #include "header.h" NB: @VMODROOT will be replaced by V with the nearest parent folder, where there is a v.mod file Any v file beside or below the folder where the v.mod file is, can use #flag @VMODROOT/abc to refer to this folder The @VMODROOT folder is also prepended to the module lookup path, so you can import other modules under your @VMODROOT, by just naming them. The instructions above

will make V look for an compiled .o file in your module folder/c/implementationo If V finds it, the o file will get linked to the main executable, that used the module. If it does not find it, V assumes that there is a @VMODROOT/c/implementation.c file, and tries to compile it to a o file, then will use that This allows you to have C code, that is contained in a V module, so that its distribution is easier. You can see a complete minimal example for using C code in a V wrapper module here: project with c code. Another example, demonstrating passing structs from C to V and back again: interoperate between C to V to C. C types Ordinary zero terminated C strings can be converted to V strings with unsafe { &char(cstring).vstring() } or if you know their length already with unsafe { &char(cstring).vstring with len(len) } NB: The .vstring() and vstring with len() methods do NOT create a copy of the cstring, so you should NOT free it after calling the method .vstring() If you need to

make a copy of the C string (some libc APIs like getenv pretty much require that, since they return pointers to internal libc memory), you can use cstring to vstring(cstring). On Windows, C APIs often return so called wide strings (utf16 encoding). These can be converted to V strings with string from wide(&u16(cwidestring)) . V has these types for easier interoperability with C: •voidptr for Cs void*, •&byte for Cs byte* and •&char for Cs char*. •&&char for Cs char* To cast a voidptr to a V reference, use user := &User(user void ptr). voidptr can also be dereferenced into a V struct through casting: user := User(user void ptr). an example of a module that calls C code from V C Declarations C identifiers are accessed with the C prefix similarly to how module-specific identifiers are accessed. Functions must be redeclared in V before they can be used. Any C types may be used behind the C prefix, but types must be redeclared in V in order to access type

members. To redeclare complex types, such as in the following C code: struct SomeCStruct { uint8 t implTraits; uint16 t memPoolData; union { struct { void* data; size t size; }; DataView view; }; }; members of sub-data-structures may be directly declared in the containing struct as below: struct C.SomeCStruct { implTraits byte memPoolData u16 // These members are part of sub data structures that cant currently be represented in V. // Declaring them directly like this is sufficient for access. // union { // struct { data voidptr size usize // } view C.DataView // } } The existence of the data members is made known to V, and they may be used without re-creating the original structure exactly. Alternatively, you may embed the sub-data-structures to maintain a parallel code structure. Debugging C Backend binaries (Default) To debug issues in the generated binary (flag: -b c), you can pass these flags: •-g - produces a less optimized executable with more debug information in it. V

will enforce line numbers from the v files in the stacktraces, that the executable will produce on panic. It is usually better to pass -g, unless you are writing low level code, in which case use the next option -cg. •-cg - produces a less optimized executable with more debug information in it. The executable will use C source line numbers in this case. It is frequently used in combination with -keepc, so that you can inspect the generated C program in case of panic, or so that your debugger (gdb, lldb etc.) can show you the generated C source code •-showcc - prints the C command that is used to build the program. •-show-c-output - prints the output, that your C compiler produced while compiling your program. •-keepc - do not delete the generated C source code file after a successful compilation. Also keep using the same file path, so it is more stable, and easier to keep opened in an editor/IDE. For best debugging experience if you are writing a low level wrapper for an

existing C library, you can pass several of these flags at the same time: v -keepc -cg -showcc yourprogram.v, then just run your debugger (gdb/lldb) or IDE on the produced executable yourprogram. If you just want to inspect the generated C code, without further compilation, you can also use the -o flag (e.g -o filec) This will make V produce the file.c then stop If you want to see the generated C source code for just a single C function, for example main, you can use: -printfn main -o file.c To debug the V executable itself you need to compile from src with ./v -g -o v cmd/v You can debug tests with for example v -g -keepc prog test.v The -keepc flag is needed, so that the executable is not deleted, after it was created and ran. To see a detailed list of all flags that V supports, use v help, v help build and v help build-c. Commandline Debugging 1.compile your binary with debugging info v -g hellov 2.debug with lldb or GDB eg lldb hello Troubleshooting (debugging) executables

created with V in GDB Visual debugging Setup: •Visual Studio Code Native Backend binaries Currently there is no debugging support for binaries, created by the native backend (flag: -b native). Javascript Backend To debug the generated Javascript output you can activate source maps: v -b js -sourcemap hello.v -o hellojs For all supported options check the latest help: v help build-js Conditional compilation Compile time code is used as a prefix for compile-time operations. $if condition $ fn main() { // Support for multiple conditions in one branch $if ios || android { println(Running on a mobile device!) } $if linux && x64 { println(64-bit Linux.) } // Usage as expression os := $if windows { Windows } $else { UNIX } println(Using $os) // $else-$if branches $if tinyc { println(tinyc) } $else $if clang { println(clang) } $else $if gcc { println(gcc) } $else { println(different compiler) } $if test { println(testing) } // v -cg . $if debug { println(debugging) } // v

-prod . $if prod { println(production build) } // v -d option . $if option ? { println(custom option) } } If you want an if to be evaluated at compile time it must be prefixed with a $ sign. Right now it can be used to detect an OS, compiler, platform or compilation options. $if debug is a special option like $if windows or $if x32 If youre using a custom ifdef, then you do need $if option ? {} and compile withv -d option. Full list of builtin options: OS Compil ers Platfor ms Other windows, linux, macos gcc, tinyc amd64, arm 64 debug, prod, test mac, darwin, ios, clang, ming w x64, x32 js, glibc, prealloc android,mach, dragonf ly msvc little endian no bounds checking, freestanding gnu, hpux, haiku, qnx cplusplus big endian no segfault handler, no backtrace, no main solaris $embed file import os fn main() { embedded file := $embed file(v.png) os.write file(exportedpng, embedded fileto string()) ? } V can embed arbitrary files into the executable with the $embed

file(<path>) compile time call. Paths can be absolute or relative to the source file. When you do not use -prod, the file will not be embedded. Instead, it will be loaded the first time your program calls embedded file.data() at runtime, making it easier to change in external editor programs, without needing to recompile your executable. When you compile with -prod, the file will be embedded inside your executable, increasing your binary size, but making it more self contained and thus easier to distribute. In this case, embedded filedata() will cause no IO, and it will always return the same data. $embed file supports compression of the embedded file when compiling with -prod. Currently only one compression type is supported: zlib import os fn main() { embedded file := $embed file(v.png, zlib) // compressed using zlib os.write file(exportedpng, embedded fileto string()) ? } $tmpl for embedding and parsing V template files V has a simple template language for text and html

templates, and they can easily be embedded via $tmpl(path/to/template.txt): fn build() string { name := Peter age := 25 numbers := [1, 2, 3] return $tmpl(1.txt) } fn main() { println(build()) } 1.txt: name: @name age: @age numbers: @numbers @for number in numbers @number @end output: name: Peter age: 25 numbers: [1, 2, 3] 1 2 3 $env module main fn main() { compile time env := $env(ENV VAR) println(compile time env) } V can bring in values at compile time from environment variables. $env(ENV VAR) can also be used in toplevel #flag and #include statements: #flag linux -I $env(JAVA HOME)/include Environment specific files If a file has an environment-specific suffix, it will only be compiled for that environment. •.jsv => will be used only by the JS backend These files can contain JS code •.cv => will be used only by the C backend These files can contain C code •.nativev => will be used only by Vs native backend • nix.cv => will be used only on Unix

systems (non Windows) • ${os}.cv => will be used only on the specific os system For example, windowscv will be used only when compiling on Windows, or with -os windows. • default.cv => will be used only if there is NOT a more specific platform file For example, if you have both file linux.cv and file defaultcv, and you are compiling for linux, then only file linuxcv will be used, and file default.cv will be ignored Here is a more complete example: main.v: module main fn main() { println(message) } main default.cv: module main const ( message = Hello world ) main linux.cv: module main const ( message = Hello linux ) main windows.cv: module main const ( message = Hello windows ) With the example above: •when you compile for windows, you will get Hello windows •when you compile for linux, you will get Hello linux •when you compile for any other platform, you will get the non specific Hello world message. • d customflag.v => will be used only if you pass -d

customflag to V That corresponds to $if customflag ? {}, but for a whole file, not just a single block. customflag should be a snake case identifier, it can not contain arbitrary characters (only lower case latin letters + numbers + ). NB: a combinatorial d customflag linuxcv postfix will not work If you do need a custom flag file, that has platform dependent code, use the postfix d customflag.v, and then use plaftorm dependent compile time conditional blocks inside it, i.e $if linux {} etc • notd customflag.v => similar to d customflagv, but will be used only if you do NOT pass -d customflag to V Compile time pseudo variables V also gives your code access to a set of pseudo string variables, that are substituted at compile time: •@FN => replaced with the name of the current V function •@METHOD => replaced with ReceiverType.MethodName •@MOD => replaced with the name of the current V module •@STRUCT => replaced with the name of the current V struct

•@FILE => replaced with the path of the V source file •@LINE => replaced with the V line number where it appears (as a string). •@COLUMN => replaced with the column where it appears (as a string). •@VEXE => replaced with the path to the V compiler •@VEXEROOT => will be substituted with the folder, where the V executable is (as a string). •@VHASH => replaced with the shortened commit hash of the V compiler (as a string). •@VMOD FILE => replaced with the contents of the nearest v.mod file (as a string) •@VMODROOT => will be substituted with the folder, where the nearest v.mod file is (as a string) That allows you to do the following example, useful while debugging/logging/tracing your code: eprintln(file: + @FILE + | line: + @LINE + | fn: + @MOD + . + @FN) Another example, is if you want to embed the version/name from v.mod inside your executable: import v.vmod vm := vmod.decode( @VMOD FILE ) or { panic(errmsg) } eprintln($vm.name

$vmversion $vmdescription) Performance tuning The generated C code is usually fast enough, when you compile your code with -prod. There are some situations though, where you may want to give additional hints to the compiler, so that it can further optimize some blocks of code. NB: These are rarely needed, and should not be used, unless you profile your code, and then see that there are significant benefits for them. To cite gccs documentation: "programmers are notoriously bad at predicting how their programs actually perform". - you can tag functions with [inline], so the C compiler will try to inline them, which in some cases, may be beneficial for performance, but may impact the size of your executable. [direct array access] - in functions tagged with [direct array access] the compiler will translate array operations directly into C array operations - omitting bounds checking. This may save a lot of time in a function that iterates over an array but at the cost of making

the function unsafe - unless the boundaries will be checked by the user. if likely (bool expression) { this hints the C compiler, that the passed boolean expression is very likely to be true, so it can generate assembly code, with less chance of branch misprediction. In the JS backend, that does nothing if unlikely (bool expression) { similar to likely (x), but it hints that the boolean expression is highly improbable. In the JS backend, that does nothing. [inline] Compile-time reflection Having built-in JSON support is nice, but V also allows you to create efficient serializers for any data format. V has compiletime if and for constructs: struct User { name string age int } fn main() { $for field in User.fields { $if field.typ is string { println($field.name is of type string) } } } // Output: // name is of type string See examples/compiletime/reflection.v for a more complete example Limited operator overloading struct Vec { x int y int } fn (a Vec) str() string { return

{$a.x, $ay} } fn (a Vec) + (b Vec) Vec { return Vec{a.x + bx, ay + by} } fn (a Vec) - (b Vec) Vec { return Vec{a.x - bx, ay - by} } fn main() { a := Vec{2, 3} b := Vec{4, 5} mut c := Vec{1, 2} println(a + b) // "{6, 8}" println(a - b) // "{-2, -2}" c += a println(c) // "{3, 5}" } Operator overloading goes against Vs philosophy of simplicity and predictability. But since scientific and graphical applications are among Vs domains, operator overloading is an important feature to have in order to improve readability: is a lot less readable than a + b + c * d. To improve safety and maintainability, operator overloading is limited: a.add(b)add(cmul(d)) •Its only possible to overload +, -, *, /, %, <, >, ==, !=, <=, >= operators. •== and != are self generated by the compiler but can be overridden. •Calling other functions inside operator functions is not allowed. •Operator functions cant modify their arguments. •When using < and ==

operators, the return type must be bool. •!=, >, <= and >= are auto generated when == and < are defined. •Both arguments must have the same type (just like with all operators in V). •Assignment operators (*=, +=, /=, etc) are auto generated when the corresponding operators are defined and operands are of the same type. Inline assembly a := 100 b := 20 mut c := 0 asm amd64 { mov eax, a add eax, b mov c, eax ; =r (c) as c // output ; r (a) as a // input r (b) as b } println(a: $a) // 100 println(b: $b) // 20 println(c: $c) // 120 For more examples, see github.com/vlang/v/tree/master/vlib/v/tests/assembly/asm testamd64v Translating C to V TODO: translating C to V will be available in V 0.3 V can translate your C code to human readable V code and generate V wrappers on top of C libraries. Lets create a simple program test.c first: #include "stdio.h" int main() { for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) { printf("hello world "); } return 0; } Run v

translate test.c, and V will generate testv: fn main() { for i := 0; i < 10; i++ { println(hello world) } } To generate a wrapper on top of a C library use this command: v wrapper c code/libsodium/src/libsodium This will generate a directory libsodium with a V module. Example of a C2V generated libsodium wrapper: https://github.com/vlang/libsodium When should you translate C code and when should you simply call C code from V? If you have well-written, well-tested C code, then of course you can always simply call this C code from V. Translating it to V gives you several advantages: •If you plan to develop that code base, you now have everything in one language, which is much safer and easier to develop in than C. •Cross-compilation becomes a lot easier. You dont have to worry about it at all •No more build flags and include files either. Hot code reloading module main import time [live] fn print message() { println(Hello! Modify this message while the program is running.)

} fn main() { for { print message() time.sleep(500 * time.millisecond) } } Build this example with v -live message.v You can also run this example with v -live run message.v Make sure that in command you use a path to a Vs file, not a path to a folder (like v -live run .) - in that case you need to modify content of a folder (add new file, for example), because changes in message.v will have no effect Functions that you want to be reloaded must have [live] attribute before their definition. Right now its not possible to modify types while the program is running. More examples, including a graphical application: github.com/vlang/v/tree/master/examples/hot reload Cross compilation To cross compile your project simply run v -os windows . or v -os linux . (Cross compiling for macOS is temporarily not possible.) If you dont have any C dependencies, thats all you need to do. This works even when compiling GUI apps using the ui module or graphical apps using gg. You will need to

install Clang, LLD linker, and download a zip file with libraries and include files for Windows and Linux. V will provide you with a link. Cross-platform shell scripts in V V can be used as an alternative to Bash to write deployment scripts, build scripts, etc. The advantage of using V for this is the simplicity and predictability of the language, and cross-platform support. "V scripts" run on Unix-like systems as well as on Windows. Use the .vsh file extension It will make all functions in the os module global (so that you can use mkdir() instead of osmkdir(), for example). An example deploy.vsh: #!/usr/bin/env -S v run // The shebang above associates the file to V on Unix-like systems, // so it can be run just by specifying the path to the file // once its made executable using `chmod +x`. // Remove if build/ exits, ignore any errors if it doesnt rmdir all(build) or { } // Create build/, never fails as build/ does not exist mkdir(build) ? // Move *.v files to build/

result := execute(mv *.v build/) ? if result.exit code != 0 { println(result.output) } // print command then execute it fn sh(cmd string){ println("❯ $cmd") print(execute or exit(cmd).output) } sh(ls) // Similar to: // files := ls(.) ? // mut count := 0 // if files.len > 0 { // for file in files { // if file.ends with(v) { // mv(file, build/) or { // println(err: $err) // return // } // } // count++ // } // } // if count == 0 { // println(No files) // } Now you can either compile this like a normal V program and get an executable you can deploy and run anywhere: v deploy.vsh && /deploy Or just run it more like a traditional Bash script: v run deploy.vsh On Unix-like platforms, the file can be run directly after making it executable using chmod +x: ./deployvsh Attributes V has several attributes that modify the behavior of functions and structs. An attribute is a compiler instruction specified inside [] right before a

function/struct/enum declaration and applies only to the following declaration. // [flag] enables Enum types to be used as bitfields [flag] enum BitField { read write other } fn main() { assert 1 == int(BitField.read) assert 2 == int(BitField.write) mut bf := BitField.read assert bf.has(read | other) // test if *at least one of the flags is set assert !bf.all(read | other) // test if *all of the flags is set bf.set(write | other) assert bf.has(read | write | other) assert bf.all(read | write | other) bf.toggle(other) assert bf == BitField.read | write assert bf.all(read | write) assert !bf.has(other) } // Calling this function will result in a deprecation warning [deprecated] fn old function() { } // It can also display a custom deprecation message [deprecated: use new function() instead] fn legacy function() {} // You can also specify a date, after which the function will be // considered deprecated. Before that date, calls to the function // will be compiler notices - you will

see them, but the compilation // is not affected. After that date, calls will become warnings, // so ordinary compiling will still work, but compiling with -prod // will not (all warnings are treated like errors with -prod). // 6 months after the deprecation date, calls will be hard // compiler errors. [deprecated: use new function2() instead] [deprecated after: 2021-05-27] fn legacy function2() {} // This functions calls will be inlined. [inline] fn inlined function() { } // This functions calls will NOT be inlined. [noinline] fn function() { } // This function will NOT return to its callers. // Such functions can be used at the end of or blocks, // just like exit/1 or panic/1. Such functions can not // have return types, and should end either in for{}, or // by calling other `[noreturn]` functions. [noreturn] fn forever() { for {} } // The following struct must be allocated on the heap. Therefore, it can only be used as a // reference (`&Window`) or inside another reference

(`&OuterStruct{ Window{.} }`) // See section "Stack and Heap" [heap] struct Window { } // V will not generate this function and all its calls if the provided flag is false. // To use a flag, use `v -d flag` [if debug] fn foo() { } fn bar() { foo() // will not be called if `-d debug` is not passed } // The memory pointed to by the pointer arguments of this function will not be // freed by the garbage collector (if in use) before the function returns [keep args alive] fn C.my external function(voidptr, int, voidptr) int // Calls to following function must be in unsafe{} blocks. // Note that the code in the body of `risky business()` will still be // checked, unless you also wrap it in `unsafe {}` blocks. // This is useful, when you want to have an `[unsafe]` function that // has checks before/after a certain unsafe operation, that will still // benefit from Vs safety features. [unsafe] fn risky business() { // code that will be checked, perhaps checking pre conditions

unsafe { // code that *will not be checked, like pointer arithmetic, // accessing union fields, calling other `[unsafe]` fns, etc. // Usually, it is a good idea to try minimizing code wrapped // in unsafe{} as much as possible. // See also [Memory-unsafe code](#memory-unsafe-code) } // code that will be checked, perhaps checking post conditions and/or // keeping invariants } // Vs autofree engine will not take care of memory management in this function. // You will have the responsibility to free memory manually yourself in it. [manualfree] fn custom allocations() { } // For C interop only, tells V that the following struct is defined with `typedef struct` in C [typedef] struct C.Foo { } // Used in Win32 API code when you need to pass callback function [windows stdcall] fn C.DefWindowProc(hwnd int, msg int, lparam int, wparam int) // Windows only: // If a default graphics library is imported (ex. gg, ui), then the graphical window takes // priority and no console window is

created, effectively disabling println() statements. // Use to explicitly create console window. Valid before main() only [console] fn main() { } Goto V allows unconditionally jumping to a label with goto. The label name must be contained within the same function as the goto statement. A program may goto a label outside or deeper than the current scope goto allows jumping past variable initialization or jumping back to code that accesses memory that has already been freed, so it requires unsafe. if x { // . if y { unsafe { goto my label } } // . } my label: should be avoided, particularly when for can be used instead. Labelled break/continue can be used to break out of a nested loop, and those do not risk violating memory-safety. goto Appendices Appendix I: Keywords V has 41 reserved keywords (3 are literals): as asm assert atomic break const continue defer else embed enum false fn for go goto if import in interface is lock match module mut none or pub return rlock select shared

sizeof static struct true type typeof union unsafe volatile offsetof See also V Types. Appendix II: Operators This lists operators for primitive types only. + sum - difference integers, floats, strings integers, floats * product integers, floats / quotient integers, floats % remainder integers ~ bitwise NOT integers & bitwise AND | bitwise OR ^ bitwise XOR ! logical NOT && logical AND || logical OR != logical XOR << left shift >> right shift integers integers integers bools bools bools bools integer << unsigned integer integer >> unsigned integer >>> unsigned right shift integer >> unsigned integer Precedence Operator 5 * / % << >> >>> & 4 + - | ^ 3 == != < <= > >= 2 && 1 || Assignment Operators += -= *= /= %= &= |= ^= >>= <<= >>>=