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COMMUNICATION Basic Model Of Communication Communication is the process of sending and receiving messages between parties. While all of the complexities of human communication can not be captured in a single model, this diagram will offer a reasonable begining. A sender source has a message in mind. The source intends to “encode” the message into language that will be understood by the receiver. Perhaps it is a statement of the sender’s preference for a particular outcome in a negotiation. The message may be encoded into verbal language or it may be encoded into nonverbal expression. Once encoded, the message is then transmitted –sent via voice or facial expression, or written statement, and through face-to-face interaction, video, letter, telegram, etc.- to the receiver.The receivers receptors pick up the transmission, and “recode” the message to give it meaning to the receiver. In a one way of communication cycle this would constitute a completed transmission. A source

who puts his message in writing and sends it by mail to the receiver generally assumes that the message is received and understood. However, most communication –particularly in negotiation- involves continued dialogue and discussion between at least two parties. As a result, the receiver takes on a more active role in the communication process in two ways. First the receiver provides information on how the message was received, and second, the receiver becomes a “sender” himself and respons to, or builds upon, the earlier message of the sender. For the current discussion, we shall refer to both of these processes as “feedback.” In the feedback process, the receiver encodes the message –through reading or listening- to assure his own understanding and comprehension of what the sender said , and what the message meant. He then ascribes “ meaning” to the communication –a comprehension of the information content of the message, as well as an “interpretation” of that

content. The receiver then becomes a “sender” of communication back to the source. The encoded message may take multiple forms: questions or other communications to obtain 1 clarification or better understanding of the earlier message; exclamations or reactions to the information content of the message; or rebuttals to the content of the first message. All of these are encoded, transmitted through various channels, received, and decoded by the original source. The entire sequence may be as simple as a question by one person, “Want to go for a cup of coffeee?” and an affirmative headshake by the other, to complex statements and responses used by negotiators in shaping a contract. This model of communication “works” to the degree that a wide variety of information –facts, opinions, feelings, preferences, and experiences- are completely and thoroughly shared between parties. However, human communication systems seldom perform with this high degree of efficiency and

effectiveness. Most of the linking elements in the model are subject to external factors that distort messages and their meaning, hampering them from getting through accurately. THE NATURE OF COMMUNICATION What does it mean to communicate? Everyone read and talk a lot about communication, but it means different things to different people. Someone may think of communication as casual conversation, the formal use of mass media, books, letters, friendly notes, or formal public speeches. Regardless of the many different meanings that people give to the word communication, everyone seems to agree that it is important. Each elements in the sequence; 1-Senders and Receivers Senders and receivers each have goals and objectives –things that they want to accomplish. The sender may want to change the receiver’s mind, or secure concessions toward a negotiated agreement. The receiver may not want to have his mind changed, and not want to make concessions; moreover, the receiver may have the

identical objective in mind fo his opponent. The more diverse the goals of the sender and receiver, or the more antaonistics they are in their relationship, the greater likelihood of distortion and error in communication. Similarly, senders and receivers differ in their individual makeup –each is likely to have a different pattern of personel values, attitudes toward certain issues and objectives, previous experiences, life history, and personality characteristics. Each of these elements contributes to a different way of viewing the world. 2-Transmitters and Receptors Tranmitters and receptors are simply the equipment by which information is sent. Information can be sent verbally and nonverbally The choice of transmitters can affect outcomes, i.e, some messages may be better spoken, while others need to be written. Moreover, when presenting information face-to-face, congruence or incongruence between multiple transmission channels is often a problem. The old expression that “your

lips tell me ‘no,no’ but there is ‘yes,yes’ in your eyes” highlights the incongruity of messages sent simultaneously by both verbal and nonverbal channels, and the possible error introduced by this dublicitous communication. On 2 the receiver’s end, poor eyesight or faulty hearing may similarly diminish the ability to accurately receive a message. 3-Messages and Channels Messages and channels are the vehicles by which information is communicated. As noted by many writers on communication, human beings are unique in their ability to use “symbolic” forms of communication –primarily the written or spoken language- to transmit information. Some messages are direct expressions of meaning –I lean over the table and grab the pencil that I want- while others are “symbolic representations” –I ask the person seated across the table, “Please pass me the pencil.” The more we are prone to use symbolic communication, the more likely that symbols may not accurately

communicate the meaning we intend. In the simplest example, if the person does not understand English, or if there are several pencils on the table, there is increased likelihood that the communication will be less than effective. Channels are the vehicles by which messages are carried. If we speak directly, it is the airwaves; if we write, it is the paper and pen or type-writer; if we talk over the telephone, it is the telephone circuitry and microwaves. Both messages and channels are prone to disortion from “noise,” which we will use as a broad descriptive category of various forms of interference in the communication process. Messages can be transmitted more clearly in a quiet room than in a loud, distracting hotel ballroom. The greater the sources of distraction and confusion in the communication environment, the more that “noise” will interfere with accurate and complete message transmission. 4-Decoding, Meaning, and Encoding Decoding, meaning and encoding are the

processes that the individual uses to interpret the messages of others, and to formulate messages themselves. Decoding is the process of translating messages from their symbolic form into interpretations that we can understand. If the parties speak the same language, or use the same common nonverbal gestures to communicate messages, the process is reasonably simple and error-free; if they do not, decoding is prone to contribute a high degree of error. While “translators” may help to decode the other’s messages, full translation may not be possible, i.e, understanding the other’s meaning or tone, as well as the words –or may introduce additional error into the communication. Meanings are the facts, ideas, feelings, reactions, or thoughts that exist whitin individuals, and act as a set of “filters” through which the decoded messages are interpreted. If a party has asked the other to “please pass me that pencil,” and the other party has said “no,” the encoded

“no” back to us is likely to stimulate a variety of reactions in the search for “meaning.” Did the other hear the message? Was the “no” a direct refusal to the request? Why did the other say “no”? Does he need the pencil too? Is he being obstinate and intentionally blocking me? Answers to these questions will vary depending upon a variety of other aspects of the communication sequence and the relationship between the parties, and will lead to different ascriptions of “meaning” to the word “no.” Finally, encoding is the process by which messages are put into symbolic form. The encoding process will be affected by varying degrees of skills in encoding, e.g, fluency in language, skill at expression in written and verbal form, etc It will also 3 be affected by the meaning attached to earlier communication- what we want to communicate, how we have reacted to earlier communications, etc. Senders are likely to choose to encode messages in a preffered form; this

form may not be the same preffered by receivers. Two managers may need to distinguish a negotiated contract; while one may prefer to “get together and discuss it over lunch,” the other may prefer to have each one prepare a written draft that they can exchange and revise individually. How this contract will eventually be prepared may thus be the subject of the negotiation itself. 5-Feedback Feedback is the process by which the receiver “reacts” to the sender’s message. Even in a one-way communication cycle, feedback is essential It is necessary to let the sender know that the message was (a) actually received, (b)encoded, and (c) ascribed with the same meaning that the sender intended. The absense of feedback can contribute to significant distortions in communication, since senders never know whether their message is being received, much less understood. Anyone who has ever talked to a large audience may find himself directing his comments to the individual who is nonverbally

shaking her haed “yes”, or similing, or in some other way acknowledging that the communication is being received and even appreciated. The sender is unlikely to direct comments to a receiver who is shaking his head “no”, or asleep, unless the comments are specifically designed to change the receiver’s disposition. BASIC PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION • • • • • • • • • It is impossible to avoid communicating Communication is largely nonverbal Context affects communication Meanings are in people, not in words Communication is irreversible Noise affects communication Comination is circular Creating common goal is essential Communication has effects A first principle of communication is that it is impossible to avoid communicating. In other words, there is no such thing as noncommunication DeVito (1988) notes that communication is inevitable, that people cannot not communicate and people cannot not respond. Some of ramifications of this principle are obvious,

and some may not be as clear. Communication is largely nonverbal. Impressions are made largely in response to nonverbal cues. A third principle that has a direct relationship to successful communication is that context(environment) affects communication. Where (under what conditions) ideas are presented makes a difference in how they are interpreted. Physical conditions are one aspects of context. A fourth principle important for success is that meanings are in people, not in words. Meanings are in the perception of decoders; people “mean”, but words do not 4 The message remembered by people often is not what communicator intended to say. The message remembered is whatever the listeners interpret it to be An other important principle is that communication is irreversible. At once time or another people may have wished they could change what they have said or done. Unfortunately, that is simply impossible. People may give additional information or a rationalization for their

previous actions, but they can only modify the impession they have already made. A sixth principle of communication is that noise is a factor in any communication situation. Noice is any factor that interferes with the clear and accurate transmission of a given message. Communication is circular, not linear. This means that people send and receive communication simultaneously. Because of its simultaneously aspects, the communication process could be considered a circle or spiral rather than a line. People process feedback while they speak to others, and they speak to themselves – think- while others are speaking. An eight principle is that communication is most efficient when the participants share a considerable amount of common experience. Common experience is achieved by using shared symbols and speaking from a shared history. Misunderstandings are less likely in such situations. And the last principle is that communication always has an effect of some kind. For every

communication act, there will be consequences. People can even feel a sense of accomplishment in a communication exchange in which a listener does not respond verbally. VERBAL AND NONVERBAL MESSAGES Primary to effective communication is a message. Any human activity has message value. That is, human activities can convey or symbolize meaning to others In its simplest sense, a message can be a idea, nemotion, desire, or emotion that one person shares with another. This can be occur whether or not a person intends to send such a message. When people think they are listening patiently to someone, but their eyes drift away from that person and become fixed on some object, they have sent a message. Another person, observing their behavior, can assign a meaning to it. Before a person can improve his or her skills he or she must be aware of the basic ways in which people send and receive messages. These can be classified in two major groups: verbal messsages and nonverbal messages. Verbal

Messages Messages sent verbally are messsages expressed in words. Since we already know that people communicate with words, it may seen unnecessary to talk about that kind of behavior. However, people need to be aware that their effectiveness in a given situation will often depend on the words they choose to use. There is a whole science devoted to the study of meaning in words, the science of semantics. Because of the study done by the specialists in this area, people know a great deal more about meanings and how they are conveyed through words. Meaning is a product of what goes on in the minds of both the sender and the receiver. Meaning is not permanently assigned to words It is carried about in the human mind and is often the result of an individual’s experiences with language and meaning. Thus, a word may have many shades of meaning Effective communication 5 depends on finding meanings shared by the sender and the receiver. Understanding this simple fact makes the role of

feedback clear. People can not know if the other person meanings are shared if they giving a reactions to each other in a communication situation. Language is symbolic. It stands for impressions and notions people have It is impotant in sending messages that the person knows as much as possible about those with whom he communicating. People also need to aware that words stand for things, but the words are not those things. Thus, labelling an idea or a person does not make the label true. It merely indicates a feeling or an idea that one holds about the thing or person. Languages chances, too, and because it does, the meanings one person attaches to a word or a group of words may not agree with another’s understanding of that word or phrase. Slang and expressions used only in a small geographip area or by one ethnic group can make communication difficult if some effort is not make to discover the meanings carried by such expressions. Nonverbal Messages About 65 percent of the

meanings people get from a communication situation come to them from the nonverbal elements rather than from the words that are spoken. Researc has shown that the nonverbal messsages will often override the words spoken in interpersonal communication. For example, imagine that a friend accuses a person of having played a pratical joke on him or her. The person deny it but blush uncontrollably. The friend will believe the message sent by the blush rather than the statement of innocance. One very important concept aabout nonverbal messages is that they are often sent and received subconsciously. That is, people may not realize that they are sending or receiving any message at all. When a nonverbal message is sent, they become aware of it through all their senses. They process and assign meaning to the message at the same time, and often they are unaware that they have performed this thought process. An important step in improving communication skills is to become aware of nonverbal

behavior and to make the sending and receiving of nonverbal messages a concious process. Nonverbal behaviors that sent messages can be grouped into three types: paralanguage, kinesics and proxemics. • Voice Paralanguage refers to the ways the voice is used in sending messages –the inflection place on a particular word, how loudly, softly, quickly, or slowly a person speaks, and so forth. Each quality of a person’s voice sends a particular messsage Most of time people use paralanguage deliberately. A person might say, for example, “Oh, sure, i like him a lot,” using sarcastic inflections to make the words him exactly the opposite. When a person choose to do this, she has sent her real messsage nonverbally, not verbally. Sometimes tha paralanguage message is not intentional. Suppose a person are giving a speech and his voice shaky and halting. His words are strung together with “uhand, uh” The audience gets a clear messsage that he is frightened, uncomfortable, or

possibly unprepared. That messsage may be strong that the words he say are ignored by his listeners. In this case his nonverbal behavior is harmful to his communication. 6 • Physical Movements Kinestics is the physical movement of a person’s body as he or she communicate with others. This is often called body language Such beclothing, and even breathing can send messsages. These messsages are often interpreted as expressions of inner feelings and attitudes. If a person want to express an attitude of openness and acceptance of the other with whom he is communicating, he will use direct eye contact and face the person squarely, stand a little closer than normal. When a person talks with someone who faces away from the person with crossed arms and who refuses to look at her directly, she generally assume that the person is closing her out. The communication is poor, not because of the verbal messsage but because of the nonverbal behavior. One interesting function of kinesics in

conversation is that people use their bodies to “punctuate” the conversation. People actually signal that they want to talk When they lean forward, or take a deep breath, or raise their eyebrows and open their mouth slightly, they are sending messsages thaat say, “It is my turn to talk!” In the same kinds of way, people signal to others that it is their turn. And also people use kinesics to let the others know they do not want to comminicate. • Space Closely related to our physical movements is the idea of proxemics, or space, as a nonverbal messsage unit. Where a person sit or stand in relationship to the others he or she is talking to can say a great deal about how he/she feels about that person. Most people have very clear ideas about what might be called personal space. Some of these ideas are cultural, but others are the products of individual personalities. Generally, people in America regard the area from three to twelve inches from them as an intimate zone. They

choose the people they will let into that area If someone stands taht close to their in normal situations without an express invitation, they are offended. They feel the person is being pushy, and have a negative reaction to the person and any messsage he or she might be sending. The are from twelve to thirty-six inches is generll regarded as a personal zone. Persons can usually stand in that are without making the other uncomfortable. However, if a stranger enters that area in a large empty room, people feel violated and sometimes fearful. The social zone for most of the people is from four to eight feet away. People can converse socially in that area and usually finf it difficult to ignore someone who is that distance from them. The public zone, in which people have the option of acknowledging someone or not, is the area more than eight feet away. The importance of proxemics is that the person’s behavior within certain prescribed spatial areas in relation to others will cary a

particular messsage. 7 ADAPTING MESSSAGES TO PURPOSE AND AUDIENCE To increase the probabilty that communication will be successful, the sender must be willing to adapt the messsage to both the purpose and the audience. For example, the purpose of communication is to give information. A number of factors will differ from communication to inspire or to persuade. By the same token, a letter intended for a close personal friend will differ from a letter written to a total stranger. There are basicly three factors that should be adapted to purpose and audience: language, style, and format • Language Appropriate language is the language that has been adapted to the receiver while retaining a naturalness with respect to the sender. A “city slicker” who wears his pinstripe whole suit and silk tie out to the field to talk to a farmer about leasing his cotton land may mistakenly try to speak like a country rube in an effort to adapt the message to the audience. However, the message

will lack genuineness and could offend the farmer. But even in a pinstipe suit and with educated speech, the city man could adjust his message by using clear explanations, avoiding jargon, and speaking with respect. A politician may speak to an audience of independent oil men about the need for the discontinuation of the oil taxes or a sanction on imported oil. Later in day, that same politician may speak to a group of farmers about the need for agricultural price supports. That candidate has adapted the message to the audience He or she has chosen the subject matter that each group wants to hear about. It is important that the politician also use language taht will make the audience aware of his or her level of knowledge of the issue. • Style The concept of style of message might be illustrated by using a series of extreme opposites: formal/informal, simple/complex, natural/flamboyant. Each of these styles might be appropriate in a given situation with a particular audience. People

can probably think of a number of public speakers who could be classified in each of these ways. They would find an equal number of people who would say that each was “the best.” Harry Truman, for example, spoke and write in a simple, direct style appropriate to a Missouri farm boy. His style spoke for his origins But he also capable of adjusting in some respects for the occasion and for the audience. The key to chosing the style of either spoken or written messages is clarity. People communicate in order to be understood. People understood best when they are clear. Clarity is usually best achieved through simplicit of style –using highly specific and descriptive words rather tahn broad generalizations and unsubstantiated judgments. A letter to a customer that speaks of “a chemical that is oxygenous” unnecessarily obscures the message that this is a gaseous chemical. Business communication differs substantially from social communication because it often concerns matters of

grave importance. So it is important for the communicator to choose a style that will be clear yet memorable. 8 • Format Depending on the receiver (audience) and on the purpose (in-house reminder or out-of-house publication), for example, a business communicator must choose an appropriate format. This decision will many times be dictated by the tradition of the district or by district policy. At other times, it will be based on the purpose and the audience. As the specific kinds of communication, the person will become acquainted with their formats. People will often have a choice of format For example, a person wanted to take one additional day of vacation. Would he send a formal request with carbons to midmanagement, or would he first make an informal, oral request of his immediate superior? If he wanted to increase the number of hours per week that he was working at a fast food establishment, would he write a formal letter, make an oral request, or leave an informal note?

People have to be sensitive to the effect that format can have on the eventual accomplishment of their communication goal. JOHARI WINDOW The Johari Window, named after the first names of its inventors, Joseph Luft and Harry Ingham, is one of the most useful models describing the process of human interaction. A four paned "window," as illustrated belowed, divides personal awareness into four different types, as represented by its four quadrants: open, hidden, blind, and unknown. The lines dividing the four panes are like window shades, which can move as an interaction progresses. In this model, each person is represented by their own window. Adjectives selected by both the participant and his or her peers are placed into the Arena quadrant. This quadrant represents traits of the participant of which both they and their peers are aware. For example, I know my name, and so do you It may also be called "open" quadrant. 9 Adjectives selected only by the

participant, but not by any of their peers, are placed into the Façade quadrant, representing information about the participant of which their peers are unaware. It is then up to the participant whether or not to disclose this information. For example, I have not told you, what one of my favorite ice cream flavors is. This information is in my "Façade" quadrant As soon as I tell you that I love "Ben and Jerrys Cherry Garcia" flavored ice cream, I am effectively pulling the window shade down, moving the information in my façade quadrant and enlarging the arena quadrants area. Façade quadrant also called "hidden" quadrant Adjectives that are not selected by the participant but only by their peers are placed into the Blind Spot quadrant. These represent information of which the participant is not aware, but others are, and they can decide whether and how to inform the individual about these "blind spots". For example, we could be eating at a

restaurant, and I may have unknowingly gotten some food on my face. This information is in my blind quadrant because you can see it, but I cannot. If you now tell me that I have something on my face, then the window shade moves to the right, enlarging the arena quadrants area. Adjectives which were not selected by either the participant or their peers remain in the Unknown quadrant, representing the participants behaviors or motives which were not recognized by anyone participating. This may be because they do not apply, or because there is collective ignorance of the existence of that trait. For example, I may disclose a dream that I had, and as we both attempt to understand its significance, a new awareness may emerge, known to neither of us before the conversation took place. The process of enlarging the open quadrant is called self-disclosure, a give and take process between me and the people I interact with. Typically, as I share something about myself (moving information from my

hidden quadrant into the open) and if the other party is interested in getting to know me, they will reciprocate, by similarly disclosing information in their hidden quadrant. Thus, an interaction between two parties can be modeled dynamically as two active Johari windows. For example, you may respond to my disclosure that I like "Cherry Garcia" by letting me know what your favorite ice cream is, or where a new ice cream shop is being built, kinds of information in your hidden quadrant. A Johari Window consists of 55 adjectives used to describe the participant, in alphabetical order: • • • • • • • • • • • able accepting adaptable bold brave calm caring cheerful clever complex confident • • • • • • • • • • • dependable dignified energetic extroverted friendly giving happy helpful idealistic independent ingenious • • • • • • • • • • • intelligent introverted kind knowledgeable logical loving mature modest

nervous observant organized • • • • • • • • • • • patient powerful proud quiet reflective relaxed religious responsive searching self-assertive self-conscious • • • • • • • • • • • sensible sentimental shy silly spontaneous sympathetic tense trustworthy warm wise witty 10 BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION The elements of communication process must be controlled for effective communication and the nature of messages. Before we can be consistently successful as a communicator, we will need to develop the ability not only to plan and implement effective communication but also to analyze why a particular communication situation might be unsuccessful. In order to build that skill, we will need a more complete understanding of barriers to communication. Barriers to communication are those physical or psychological elements that interfer with the message-for either the sender or the receiver. The things that make communication poor will

be unique to the persons and the situations involved. Because we know a great deal about communication, we can guard against some of the obstacles to it. In order to do so, we need to examine the differences in people and in situations that sometimes create communication barriers. TANGIBLE DIFFERENCES The kinds of categories used in a census of the population are all relevant to understanding tangible differences between people. These are factors such as sex, age, race, national or cultural origin, socioeconomic class, urban or rural residence, educational level, and so forth. These are things that we can know by observing people. We can be aware of these elements that shape their individuality, simply by knowing tangible things about them. No matter where people may live, will be associating and needing to communicate with people from widely different backgrounds. For example; the people work with will represent a wide variety of sex, age, and ethnic typers. The person should not

assume anything ahead of time about those with whom you will work. Understanding how tangible elements such as sex and age affect communication behavior, then, is vital to you in the business world. ♠ SEX: For instance, your sex has been found to be a major influence on the way you communicate with other people. Simply knowing a person’s gender can allow you to draw some general conclusions that hold true for many people. These general conclusions are based on reports of research projects by social scientists conducting experiments to discover how people interact in the real world. Not all men and women ct in these ways; in fact , these patterns are currently changing. We can say, however, that men and women tend to communicate with one another in different ways according to their sex. Since this is true, we can see that sex is one of the factors leading to differences in interpersonal communication effectiveness. According to studies by researchers; women and men differ as follows

when they communicate: ♣When men and women work together in a group, men tend to be more assertive and self-confident. 11 ♣Women are more likely than men to express their emotions, to reveal how they feel about a situation. It should be obvious that these are not rules, but general tendencies. However, they are important to us because they allow us to make some educated predictions about communication. They allow us to analyze communication as it occurs. ♠ AGE: Likewise, a person’s age is a strong influence on the way he or she communicates. Research has shown that young people and old people communicate in different ways. Their maturity, their educational backgrounds, and the different eras in which they grew up amake a generation gap inevitable. This often shows in the words they choose to express their thought. Objectively speaking, a person’s age or sex is not important in judging the truth or wisdom of what that person says. Sometimes, though, we do tend to judge a

statement by different standards if we know the speaker’s age or sex. In addition to the factors of age and sex, there are many other tangible characteristics that influence the effectiveness of communication between people. Consider race, occupation, socioeconomic class, and educational level as some areas of individual differences. The short exercise is this: Imagine you are discussing the many video game arcades that have opened in your area. Someone says; “I believe there ought to be a ban on letting elementary school age children play video games except after school hours and on weekends.” Suppose this statement were made by each of the following individuals. Would your reaction be different with each individual? 1. Brad Sandefer, the middle-aged music director of the largest church in the city. 2. Ethyl Brown, the local librarian 3. Marshall Pickering, an elemantary school principal 4. Tyrone Jefferson, a seven grade student enrolled at Booker T Washington Vocational

Technical School. 5. Howard Burke, PFC, US Marine Corps 6. Your father If your reaction to the statement about the video games would different according to which person said it, you can see how individual differences can afferct interpersonal communication. INTANGIBLE DIFFERENCES People’s attitudes and values would be different not only because they were different physically, but also because of their different backgrounds. The differences between people’s attitudes and values are often more important than their physical differences in influencing how they communicate. Therefore, we should not neglect the psychological factors that affect communication. ♠ PERCEPTION: All learning results from perception through our senses. Sight, hearing, and other physical senses are our contacts with the physical world. Our access to all learning is limited by the range and power of our physical senses. A 12 person who is hearing impaired will perceive things differently than will someone

who has very acute hearing. The nearsighted person will perceive the world differently than the person with perfect sight. Our physical limitations are a screen through which we perceive things that exist in our environment. Our perception is also limited by psychological screens that we have developed. We choose from among the many things within our range of perception those that we will notice, and block out the rest. We see and hear what we want! This is known as “Selective Perception”. Does this exchange sound familiar? Mother: Teenager: Will you straighten up your room? Why? What’s messy? This mother and her teenager both see the same room, but through different eyes. The mother’s perceptual screen is in the context of having everything handy and out in the open. Often, communication problems arise as a result of different selective perceptions by the persons involved. The advice that can be offered is to look at the topic from the other person’s viewpoint. In this

way, we can reduce some of the misunderstandings and misperceptions that may come up. Selective perception allows us not only to block out things that are there, but also to see more things than are there. We make our own reality! This is most clearly seen in the human tendency to stereotype others. We stereotype such groups as women, ethnic minorities, older people, adolescents, and the members of verious religious groups. So; when we get into communication difficulties with others, the reason is often thet we do not share the same perceptions, and thus our meaning is not clear. ♠ MOTIVATION: Another basic psychological factor that relates to effective communication is human motivation. A motive is a reason for action The most strongest motivations are those that are most personal. We all take actions in our own self-interest. We are motivated by money, fame, power, love, status, security, skill, ambition, and the other goals we want to achieve. Not all human motives are positive.

Sometimes an employee is not motivated to work in the employer’s best interest. If a person is more concerned with getting off work than with finishing a task, that person is called a clock-watcher or worse. His or her motive is not in the best interests of the employer. It is human nature that we possess a mixture of motives, some good and some bad. In some situations, we find ourselves confused over what action to take because our motives are in conflict. Interpersonal conflicts often arise in business when co-workers do not share similar motivations. If you have to cooperate with someone else on a project, but you are more highly motivated to be productive than that person, conflicts are bound to arise. You will feel that you are carrying more than your fair share of the work load The other person may feel that you are pushing too hard. You will both to be frustrated. In such cases as this, the single factor that can lead to resolving the conflict is the ability of each person to

communicate effectively with the other. ♠ TUNNEL VISION: This characteristics refers to a closed way of thinking, especially about abstract topics, such as religion and politics. The person with tunnel vision is one who has firmly fixed ideas. The opposite side of tunnel vision is openmindedness Of course , it is possible to be too open-minded, just as it is possible to 13 be too closed-minded. The person who is too open-minded has a problem with being wishy-washy and too easily influenced by the most recent thing he/she in told. Very few people are extremely closed or open-minded. But nearly all people lean one way or the other. These are ways of thinking about the world Communication is difficult when you must deal with a person who admits yo no errors and accepts no compromise. The person with tunnel vision cannot cope well with unforeseen developments and rapidly changing conditions. This is the person whose attitude seems to say; “I’ve already made up my mind, Don’t

confuse me with the facts!!!” ♠ EGO DEFENSIVENESS: Ego defensiveness is self-centered communication. This is more than just being selfish It is a response pattern in which a person who follows this pattern sees a disagreement as a personal attact. Such a person’s first reaction to criticism would be to counterattack in an attempt to save face and to defend the bruised ego in any way possible. You need to realize that your own responses are the controlling factor in communication. If they are defensive, they can make you blind to good suggestions, and they can destroy your ability to relate positively to these with whom you work. Some commen kinds of ego-defensive communication tactics are; • • • Sour Grapes: This tactic involves rationalizing, saying that you did not really want a thing, or downgrading the qualities of something you are unable to achieve. Projection: Projection involves accusing others of your own faults. Scapegoating: Picking on others and blaming them

unjustly are characteristics of this tactic. All of these ego-defensive mechanisms are normal in the sense that everyone uses them on occasion. Sometimes they may even be necessary, as when others seem unable to communicate with you without using hostile, abusive, or aggressive attacks against you. Some people have poor self-images; so their communication habits are based on these patterns. They feel that they must cut other people down in order to build themselves up. They make communication difficult as best The key point to remember is that ego-defensive communication never deals with the substance of a discussion, but rather with personalities. Thus, they can all be barriers to good communication. ♠ NEGATIVE EMOTIONS: Our emotions are an outgrowth of our responses to conditions about us, to the perceptions we have of our relationships with others, and to our own realities. In short, emotions are the feelings we have about the world around us. Most of the time, positive emotions

such as joy or love do not get in our way when we communicate. But negative emotions almost always obstacles to good communication. This is especially true if the emotion is uncontrolled, unfocused, or misdirected. (Sometimes, even a positive emotion can become an obstacle by making us unwilling to listen objectively to information.) Sometimes negative emotions are misdirected. We demonstrate anger at the wrong person or circumstance. This is much like unfocused emotion, but it is sometimes possible to unravel the problem if someone in the situation takes the time. An example of this could be a childhood experience when you were punished for something you did not do. If you can remember such a time, you will understand the 14 feelings such a misdirected emotions can arouse in those with whom you communicate. These five psychological factors- perception, motivation, tunnel vision, ego defensiveness, and negative emotions - are all elements of communication that you must consider

when you plan for better communication. You need to avoid them in your own communication when possible, and you need to be able to see them for what they are when others use them. DISTORTION BARRIERS There are other numerous imperfections in the communication process itself that contribute to misunderstanding and breakdowns. Many of these distortions share commonalities with the perceptual distortions, or are compounded by perceptual difficulties. Several of the more common and problematic distortions are as followings; ♠ DISTRACTIONS: One another barrier to effective communication si the presence of distractions. A professor was noted for keeping “banker’s hours,” coming to work sometime between 11.30 and noon and leaving between 2:30 and 3:00 When asked about his schedule one afternoon, and whether he were ducking out early for some tennis or golf, he said. “No, I’m going to go home and see if I can get some uninterrupted work done!” Ringigng phones, visitors, and

distracting noises interrupt clear thought and coherent communication. All of us have been in a meeting where people are constantly coming in and leaving for one reason or another, and experinced the frustration that is created by this distracting traffic flow. These distractions also contribute to communication overload, where an individual is bombarded with so much information, or so many different requests, that it is impossible to maintain a single communication sequence. Time pressures create another source of distraction. For example; the communication overload can occur because a manager does not have time effectively sequence and control all of the different individuals who want access to him- his secretary, his employee, the lunch partner, the person asking for the report, etc. Under these time pressures, communication frequently gets abbreviated or even omitted entirely. Breakdowns occur because time pressure forces the sender to communicate messages that are incomplete,

erroneous, or do not meet the needs of the receiver. Time pressures also lead to distortion in negotiations, particularly as a deadline approaches, and complex agreements must be established in very short time periods. These conditions frequently lead to agreements that are difficult to implement or ratify, since the time pressures force the parties to reach agreement without attending to the details of wording, contingencies, etc. ♠ SEMANTIC PROBLEMS: A second source of distortion in communication comes from semantics- the use of words or expressions which have a different meaning for the sender or receiver. Semantic problems typically occur when communicators speak in ambiguous generalities, or express vague degrees of intention. Semantic problems are also created when communicators use technical jargon- usage common to a particular field or specialization, but not known to those who are unfamiliar with the field. Often, mastering this technical jargon is akin to learning of a

foreign language. Most communicators are blind to the jargon of their own fields, but critical of the jargon of other fields. Businessmen criticize social 15 scientists for using big words to describe simple phenomena, while they themselves are steeped in the jargon of accounting and finance. ♠ ABSENCE OF FEEDBACK: A third source of distortion in communication is contributed by absense of feedback channels. One can see that cutting off the feedback loop does not permit the sender to know whether his message was received or received accurately. Research on one-way vs two-way communicationhighlights this problem. Two-way communication with discussion and questions of clarification takes longer, but is much more likely to be accurately received. One-way communication, in contrast, takes a shorter period of time, and is usually more “efficient” but it is more frustrating to the sender. Teachers frequently wish that students would ask more questions, to make sure that a particular

lecture is well-understood; students frequently wish that the instructor would stop and ask for questions, rather than continuing on without probing at the right time. Negotiations is by definition, a “give and take” process, one that requires two-way communication to be effective. The more “dedicated” or one-way it becomes- for example, from superior to subordinate –the more likely error and distortion will be introduced because of the absence of feedback channels. ♠ CLIMATE: In a well-known article on the impact on negotiations, Gibb (1961) described the differences between supportive and defensive climates in communication. Defensive behaviour,as defined by Gibb, is “behaviour which occurs when an individual perceives threat or anticipates threat in the group”. Defensive behaviour is characterized by devoting attention to defending oneself from the other communicator- anticipating the other’s reaction to his comments, protecting himself from attack by the opponent,

and/or trying to impress, dominate, retalite against, or attack by the opponent. Defensive communication is self-fulfilling Defensive communication is much more likely to occur when the parties do not trust one another, or have dissimilar and conflicting goals and objectives, or have power differences between them, defensive communication is a common problem for negotiators. On the other hand, supportive communication climates in negotiations are rare; they are more likely to occur when negotiators find themselves on the “sameside”(that is, not having mutually conflicting interests), and pursuing an integrative bargaining process rather than a distributive one. ♠ STATUS AND POWER DIFFERENCES: Differences in status and power between communicators can make the “one-way” communication problem more acute. Research tends to show that managers spend a great deal of their time “telling” their subordinates what they want to have accomplished- in other words, higher status and

power tends to lead to one-way communication from manager to subordinate. In contrast, communication upward tends to be characterized by distortions that are self-serving to the sub-ordinate- to make him look good in the superior’s eye, or to keep him from looking bad. Subordinates often don’t communicate with superiors “freely” on an open and honest basis. When power differences exist between negotiators, differences in communications are likely to parallel the differences in power. Research shows that; imbalance or asymmetry in negotiating power leads the high power party to perform significantly better than the low power party. However, we can infer that when power differences between negotiators exist, high power parties use power to their advantage, are more predisposed to use threats than promises, and use 16 communicationto direct the opponent toward compliance. In contrast, we might expect low power parties to usea variety of appeals in order to persuade the high

power party to be mare equitable, fair, and just in his use of power in the negotiation. GUIDELINES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION Effective communication skills are necessary for smooth relations with other people. They can be your family, friends, colleagues or even strangers Communication is engaging in an exchange with another person. Knowing how to communicate effectively will help you get across what you mean more efficiently. You do not need a long list of do’s and don’ts for verbal use. You do need to understand that language is not always exact. It carries possibilities for misunderstanding if not carefully controlled. Some general guidelines for selecting words and some tips for effective communication are noted in the following; ℘Be Exact: Try to find the most precise and specific words. Pay attention to feedback that indicates how the meaning is perceived by the receiver. ℘Use the word “is” carefully: When you say; “He is radical,” you may really mean, “He

seems to be a radical.” There is a vast difference between the two statements, and each might bring a different reactions. ℘Avoid Overgeneralization: Lumping groups together verbally expresses a distorted vision of the world. Prejudice and stereotyping (assuming that an individual will think and act according to your notion of the typical member of that sex or that ethnic, racial, or religious group) rarely produce useful dialogue. ℘Be sensitive to connotative meaning: Connotative meanings are not the definitions found in a dictionary. Rather, they are the emotional or implied meanings we attach to certain words. Evenif your intent is to make a simple factual statement, the connotative meaning of a term can offend someone. If your neighbour’s pet is not from a single breed, you would probably not want to describe it as a mongrel. The connotative meaning of the term mongrel is insulting. We reveal a great deal about our attitudes to others if we are insensitive to the

connotative meanings of words. ℘Do not to overuse you or your: One sure way to produce a defensive reaction is to assign ownership. “Your boss made another silly statement in his meeting last night” is almost guaranteed to produce an argument rather than a discussion. Although we now that messages can be sent in verbal form, we may not be aware of how the choice of words affects the ability of the receiver to decode our message accurately. So we should keep in mind the importance of words in message sending. ℘Count from 1 to 10: When you get in the middle of an intense argument or when someone suddenly lashes out at you, don’t get mad right away. Count 1 to 10 before responding. This will make you aware that the person you are speaking to might just be experiencing severe stress and does not intend to attack you personally. ℘Recognize that you don’t know all the answers to all questions: If you don’t know the answer just say that you don’t know. You don’t have to

make other people feel and think that you know everything. 17 Listen to other people’s concerns. People need to be heard just like you do More importantly, take the initiative to share in other people’s feelings. ℘Always remember that what others may not mean the way we think they mean it: Our values, beliefs and judgments may have altered the meaning of what someone has said. Always allow for the possibility that our impression of what someone has said may not be true. ℘Focus on common interests rather than differences:This will help you direct your energy to promoting the common interest and making everyone happier, and will also help you avoid frustration. Be aware when you impinge on someone’s space Personal space is very important for most people. When you impinge on their space try to ask them respectfully. Tell them the reason you have to impinge on their space ℘Think positive: Always see the glass as half full rather than half empty. Doing so will help you

reduce stress. Also it can keep you motivated and pleasant when you deal with other people Communicating can be a pleasant and enriching experience when you try to do it more effectively. These simple pointers can help you moving towards more effectively dealing with others, and will save you a great deal of stress and energy. IMPROVING COMMUNICATION EFFECTIVENESS IN NEGOTIATION A number of techniques have been suggested for improving the accuracy and efficiency of communications in negotiation. “Tutoring” communication- helping the parties learn how to communicate accurately and appropriately- is a role typically played by third parties. In the following; some other techniques that the parties themselves can use to insure that some of the typical perceptual and communication blocks are not confounding their ability to reach satisfactory agreement, are listed. ♣ QUESTIONING: One of the most common techniques for clarifying communications, and eliminating noise and distortion, is

the use of questions. Niereberg (1973) emphasized that questions are essential elements in negotiations for securing information; asking good questions enables a negotiator to secure a great deal of information about the opponent’s position, supporting arguments and needs. ♣ ACTIVE LISTENING/REFLECTING: “Active listening” and “reflecting” are terms that are commonly used in the helping professions- counseling and theraphy. Counselors recognize that communicators are frequently loaded with multiple meanings, and that the counselor musttry to “tease out” these several meanings without making the communicator angry or defensive. One technique for gaining more information is to ask questions, another method of gaining more information is by listening. There are 3 major forms of listening: • • Passive Listening: is merely the reception of the message, providing no feedback to the sender about the accuracy or completeness of reception. Sometimes it is enough in itself to

keep a communicator sending information. Acknowledgment : is the second form of listening, slightly more active than complete passivity. When acknowledging, the receiver occasionally nods his head, maintains eye contact, or interjects responses like “I see”, “interesting”, 18 • “sure”.etc These responses are sufficient to keep the communicator sending messages, but the sender often misinterprets the acknowledgments as the receiver’s agreeing with the position, rather than simply receiving the message. Active listening: is the third form of listening. When the receiver is actively listening, he restates, or paraphrases, the sender’s message in his own language. Such as; Sender: Please, dont ask me about that now. Receiver: Sounds like you’re awfully busy right now. Sender: I thought the meeting today accomplished nothing. Receiver: We were very disappointed with our session. Successful reflective responding is characterized by; ⇒ a greater emphasis on

listening than on talking. ⇒ responding to that which is personal rather than abstract. ⇒ following the other in his exploration rather than leading him into areas we think we should be exploring. ⇒ clarifying what the other has said about his own thoughts and feelings rather than close questioning, or telling him what we believe he should be thinking or feeling. ⇒ responding to the other’s feelings in his communication. ♣ ROLE REVERSAL : The third way communication distortions may be eliminated is through role reversal. Role reversal techniques allow us to understand the other’s position by actively arguing his position to his satisfaction. In doing so, it is expected that the communicator will more fully understand his opponent’s position, perhaps come to accept the validity of that position, and discover ways that both positions can be modified or changed to bring them into greater compability. Role reversal may be a useful tool for reducing the distortions in

communication that prohibit accurate understanding of, and appreciation for, the other position in negotiation. However, such understanding may not necessarily lead to an easier resolution of the conflict, particularly when accurate communication reveals a fundamental incompatibility in the positions of the two sides. 19 BUSINESS COMMUNICATION Types of Communication The business communication settings includes the sending and receiving of messages in an organization- between two people, or among a small group of people, or in a one-to-many setting, with the intent of influencing organizational behavior. The results of communication efforts thus may be intentional (one person deliberately attempts to influence another) or unintentional (one person’s actions areperceived and interpreted by another). All business communication is ultimately persuasive in nature and represents an attempt to influence behavior in organizations. Some impressions are intentional- under the control of

communicator. Skilled business communication consider the importance of first impressions as they plan for a presentation. They carefully the way confident people walk into a room; they consider appropriate dress (colors, textures, style, etc.); they note how when handshake techniques affect the impression. Additionally, skillful presenters manage the amenities of small talk and factors such as seating arrangements in an effort to make a favorable first impression. Indeed, a “sharp image” may be planned and cultivated well in advance. One must “sell oneself” before offering an idea or a plan of action; this should motivate the communicator to consider communication variables that affect the success of the appeal. Other impressions are unintentional. While recognizing that such impressions are unavoidable, effective communicators will try to be as sensitive to unintended cues as possible in order to minimize potential distractions from an intended message. A good business

communicator tries to minimize misunderstandings. Even the most sensitive persuader will have to recognize that much unconscious communication (communication below the treshold of awareness) and/or unintentional communication will ocur during a given interaction. Only a careful audit of the feedback behaviors of the audience members will give the business communicator clues as to the presence of such unintentional stimuli. Awareness is the beginning of stimulus management BUSINESS SETTING Characteristics: There are five characteristics of any business setting that have a srond bearing on communication. The business world is complex, competitive, group oriented, and data based. a- Complex: All business is done through some kind of organization. That organization may be small neighborhood grocery store operated by a family. It may be a large international corporation that employs thousands of people. Bot hare complex. This is true because any organization demands communication and

action among people to accomplish its goals. 20 In very large organizations, communication must follow established networks. The person must know about the chains of command. You must know the person to people who make certain decisions or you have made. If the person fail to understand and use those communication networks, you have communication problems without realizing the reason. In a more complex organization, the person must make decisions about communication that depend on individual status or power. The person must decide what kind of communication he or she need to use in getting a message to him or her boss. The person also need to decide how best to communicate with co-wokers If he or she fail to make these decisions before communicating, the person will limithow sucessful he can be. b- Competitive: Business compete with one another to deliver the best goods or services to their customers. Your ability to communicate with clients or customers makes a difference in

success in his job. However business is a competitive world in another way, too. The person compete with others in his organization for recogition A promotion –even continued employment- can depend on that ability. In a very real way, competition influences all the business communication. A special communication problem comes from this characteristic. Although the person compete with others he will also be expected to be a part of the team competing with other businesses. He must select appropriate and nondestructive ways to communicate within the organization. This not easy It requires a careful working knowledge of communication and a desire to use communication skills effectively. c- Group Oriented: Much of the communication in businesses takes place in a group setting. The abilitiy to function well in a group is way important for success in businesses. If the communication behavior in a group is negative, it will block ability to function. It will endanger the group It may even

endanger the person’s own job success. If he brings personal emotions such as anger or jealousy into a sales meeting, he cannot communicate effectively in the group. If he dominate a group meeting failing to allow anyone else to express ideas, he is blocking the group’s effectiveness. On the other hand, if he fail to contribute anything in a group meeting he is equally in effective. Understanding and applying the communication behaviors needed for a group to function can be a real assets in his job. d- Task Oriented: Every business has a task-it must sell something, either a product or a service. The individual’s success within the business depends on how well he or she helps it accomplish its task. As a part of the organization, he or she helps it accomplish its task in the way he or she communicate both with others inside the business and with those outside. Business letters, publis speeches, and participation in civic groups assist the organization in accomplishing its tasks.

Realizing that the organization exists in order to accomplish a task will help the individual be a better employee. e- Data Based: Business in the latter half of the twentieth century are forced to process greater and greater amounts of infomation for use within the organization and for accountability outside it. As a consequence, today’s business are increasingly dependent on information technology, and the ability communicate with machines, to store and retrieve information, is a vital communication tool for employees. Two writers Carter and Huzan(1981), studied the nature of a business in a terms of data –or information- related processes. They concluded that the following processes are involved: • People-to-people communication (telephone) 21 • • • • People-to-paper communication (typing) Paper-to-paper transfer (copying) Paper-to-file transfer (storing) Files-to-people transfer (information retrieval) In many cases, an employee will have to acquire skills

specific to a wide variety of automation devices in order to function in an existing position. Fear, resistance, or the inability to acquire the skills will create a job threatening situation. Employees’ Responsibilities The wise employee and employer both realize that the success of the individual is tied to the success of the organization. A slovenly, slow-moving waiter may cause a loss of customers. If enough of them go away, he will also cause his own loss of employment. A cross receptionist could run off so many clients that her boss could no longer afford to employ her. Any employee of an organization should be prepared to fulfill three responsibilities. The responsible employee serves as an interpreter for the company, as a humanizer or personalizer, and as a promoter. Each of these roles requires particular communication skills and attitudes. Interpreter: Suppose that anyone want to purchase a very sophisticated camera for your father as a gift, but you know nothing about

cameras. Would you order it from catolog? The chances are that you would go to a camera store where an employee could interpret for you the various models and explain the advantages for each. This employee’s function would be that of an interpreter of the organization and its product. Humanizer: As a business organizations get larger and larger, there is a growing need for employees to humanize their organization. If an employee uses highly skillful communication, the human contact can relieve the fear and sometimes the anger of a customer. There was a time when people paid their their monthly bills in person to business who employed people they knew. This rarely true today. The person send payments to faraway computer centers, and your inquiries about bills are handled by incividuals working in crowded offices miles away. An employee who can create a sense of warmth and caring in communicating with customers is humanizing the organization. During a recent convention, a conventioneer

picked up one of the houses phones and asked for the hotel manager. When the manager answered, the conventioneer described the kind and the patient actions of the desk clerk who had been on duty during the frantic check-in time the night before. Within the organization there are also opportunities for an employee to humanize the business. If new rules, mandates, and policies that affect the employees can be made more understandable, they will be accepted more readily. An organization needs employees who can establish communication with a personal touch. Promoter: Employees are also important in promoting business. Promotion can take the form of deliberate communications to audiences about the wok and contributions of the business. This situation do not mean that an employee must accept everything that the organization does; constuctive criticism is needed in any group. But the emploee who promotes the organization helps it work to solve its problems rather than broadcasting them to the

outside world. A sense of pride in the 22 place you work and a sense of loyalty to the organization should be part of your attitude and should show in your communication. Communication Skills If one person act as an interpreter, a humanizer, and a promoter for his organization, what skills will you need? Most people involved in the business world agree that there are nine essential communication skills: • Listening • Writing • Interviewing • Group discussion • Interpersonal communication • Public speaking • Nonverbal communication • Problem solving • Telephone communication As a result of a survey conducted by a team of researchers, we can see how those communication skills are used in a typical office by various employees. The researchers divided office activities into two categories: communication and noncommunication activities. The communication activities were divided into type A (direct conversational kinds involving two-way communication and feedback) and

type B (not conversational but involving some storage function) They also designated three levels of employees:  Level 1- Upper Management  Level 2- Other Management  Level 3- Nonmanagement. The chart that follows represents their findings. 23 Percentage of Time Spent on Office Activities by Various Levels of Employees Noncommunication Activities Communication Activities Type A activities direct conversation • • • Telephoning Conferring Meeting Type B activities no direct conversation • Reading • Writing • Dictating • Researching • Filing • Copying • Proofeading • • • • • Calculating Planning Scheduling Travel Equipment use Time spent by: Level 1 employees (upper management) Level 2 employees (other management) Level 3 employees (nonmanagement) 40% 42% 18% 33% 35% 32% 30% 31% 39% Each of these communication skills and types is a product of a single process, complex and interactive but observable and understandable. Since our

purpose is to become better communicatiors in the businesss setting, a full understanding of the process of communication is essential. Communication Ethics Ethics are central to communication. Ethics are standards of condust and moral judgement. Communication ethics is the consideration of the rightness of wrongness of a given communication act. Whenever anyone seeks effect change in an organization or in a relationship with another person, there are ethical dimensions to consider. The following questions illustrate the issues involved: • Is the request in the long-term good of the organization? • Is the request in the best interest of the parties involved in the communication? • Do all parties have the information and understanding they need in order to make an informed choice? • Is the information correct/truthful? In ethical communication, the answers to all these questions have to be “yes”. These are among the ethical questions that are raised whenever a business

communication is transacted. It is not ethical to lie or hide the truth when it prevents another person from exercising the right to choose from a full range of options. 24 These is an inherent relationship between ethics and communication. In addition to deciding what is efficient, effective, and desirable in a communication interaction, the straightforward business communicator will choose what is ethical. Quality versus Quantity More communication is not inherently better communication. Sensory or message overload paralyzes a business organization. Effective communicaiton (quality) in the business setting may be more helpful than more messages (quantity). Moreover, the best possible communication will not solve all problems in a business organization. Some problems may occur because of a lack of resources, innovations by competing businesses, philosophical differences that can be explored but not overcome through communication. Communication Networks Business organizations

contain formal and informal networks. Networks are patters of communication in an organization. They are channels through which messages pass from one person to another. Formal networks are legitimate (aurhorized by management) and often indicated by an organization chart that displays who answers to whom. CEO VicePresident, Auxiliary VicePresident, Research VicePresident, Manufacturi VicePresident, Sales VicePresident, Services Maintenance Production development Personal computers CRX 1000 PC Individual customers Supplies Product refinement XT computers CRX 2000 XT AT Computers Business applications CRX 3000 AT -Organization chart of line and staff positions An organization chart shows the levels of authority within an organization and reflects the expected flow of information. Normally, each employee answers directly 25 to only one person. Such formal networks indicate a unity of command A higherranking company official who wants an employee under the

authority of another to perform some task normally communicates the request through an informal network or asks the employee’s immediate supervisor to see that the task is completed. Informal networks are unofficial channels through which information passes in an organization. Formal communication networks contain more of the written, predictable, and routine communications; informal networks are faster, richer, and often more accurate, and communication is more likely to be face-to-face. Informal communication networks are not controlled by management. Sometimes people “leak” information to the informal network for the purpose of sending up ”trial balloons” (ideas not ready for formal proposals). Conrad (1990) writes, “Because using formal communication networks takes so much time and effort, people may have choose to not communicate at all if they have no formal channels available. Even ‘gossip’ and ‘rumors’ usually provide accurate information”. Such networks

are called grapevines. They reflect patterns that employees develop when the formal channels are not clear, efficient, and/or respected. DeVito (1988) notes that the grapevine’s “speed and accuracy make it an ideal medium to carry a great deal of the social communications that so effectively bind together workers in an organization”. Informal channels of communication flow upward, downward, and horizontally, with little regard of designated positional relationships. Successful managers learn to “top” the grapevine and alter the flow of formal communication appropriately. Line and staff distinctions are important for business communicators. Line functions are usually essential to the successful operation of the organization. On an organization chart, line functions are usually connected by solid lines indicating the direction of authority. Line networks normally involve superior-subordinate relationships. Staff relationships between the members of an organization are most

often advisory in nature. It is possible for a given employee to have a line relationship with one group in an organization and a staff relationship with another. The span of control refers to the number of subordinates who are under the authority of an individual supervisor or manager. The smaller the span of control, the more communication access each employee will have to the supervisor. If employees are assigned similar tasks, the span of control may be somewhat greater. If employees perform complex and divergent tasks, then the span of control should be consolidated so access can be increased; otherwise, communication problems may result. Tall organizational networks have multiple levels of management and supervision; flat organizational structures are broad-based (look at followed figures). Flat structures allow more independent action by employees and provide greater access to top management. Flat (or wide) structures has fewer third- and fourth- level supervisors. Communication

tends to be freer in more broadly based (flat) configurations because there is a shorter chain of command to pass through wth a given message. Some organizations are operated in a task-oriented manner. Other organizations are more loosely disciplined. A relaxed communication network (normally found in flat structures) is more likely to support innovations than a tight or mechanistic one, because there is less delay in the communication flow and a less restrictive atmosphere. 26 CEO (a) Division Manager Division Manager Department Head Department Head Department Head Department Head (b) Manager Department Head Division Manager Department Head Department Head Department Head Department Head CEO Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager Manager (a) Tall organizational structure; (b) flat organizational structure Information Flow in Business Organizations Organizations charts do not indicate how all information travels. Even in the

best-managed organizations. Informal networks take the form of friendship groups and the grapevine of corporate gossip. In a well-run organization, formal channels should be more accurate. In many less effective organizations, the informal networks appear to be more assurate in reflecting what is really happening. Another factor in business communication is the direction of communication. Downward communication occurs when a manager or supervisor sends a message to one or more subordinates. Downward communication is often designed to give instructions or to explain how a superior wants a task accomplished. Superiors send 27 Manager information to appraise a subordinate’s performance or to further motivate the subordinate. Downward communication sets the tone for a business organization. If the majority of the communication in a business comes from the top (vertical down) and generally is directive, the organizational styles tends to be autocratic. If the majority of the

downward communication is supportive and has a large element of concern for the subordinates, the tone set will be more supportive. Such communication will encourage collaboration between management and employees. Furthermore, it will encourage a full range of upward communication. Upward communication occurs when messages flow from subordinates to managers or from supervisors to executives. Employeees are expected to report their progress in completing tasks; what, if any, tasks are causing them problems; suggestions for product or procedural improvement; and, most important, how they feel about things are going. Upward communication is important-managers need accurate feedback about whether their messages have been understood, how decisions are being accepted, and what problems are developing. Horizontal communication (or lateral communication) occurs between people at the same level, or between people at corresponding levels in different divisions, within an organization. Effective

horizontal communication can help people to coordinate projects, solve problems, provide a collation of information, resolve conflicts, and pave the way for business relationships. All too often, horizontal communication is blocked because of jealousy, the barriers of technical specialization or seperate locations, and because too much information flows for any one employee to process the data meaningfully. For example, people in a unit may feel that they are in competition with the production staff for all sorts of “perks” –bonuses, information, new positions, and so on- and they may seek to limit the amount of information that is shared. Insightful managers create an environment in which cooperation has more reward than competition; thus, they improve the communication environment of the entire organization. Recognizing and rewarding a group- a team- of employees is one way to encourage a cooperative spirit. COMMUNICATION STRATEGY What makes managerial communication different

from other kinds of communication? Managerial communication is succesfully only if you get your desired responce from your audience. To get that desired response, you must think strategically about your communication before you start to write or speak. a- What are the objectives? Defining the objectives provides two important benefits. First, you will be more efficient, because you will no longer waste time writing or presenting material unlesss you have a clear reason for doing so. Second, you will be more effective, because formulating your objective precisely will help you communicate more clearly. To clarify your purpose, hone down your objectives from the general to specific. General objectives: These are your broad goals, the ones that trigger the creative process and start you thinking. They are comprehensive statements about what you are doing, what you hope to be doing, or what problem you are trying to solve. 28 Action Objectives: To define your objectives more

specifically, determine yor action objectives- specific, measurable, time-bound steps that will lead toward your general objectives. State your action objectives in this form: “To accomplish a specific result by a specific time.” Communication Objective: Your communication objective is even more specific. Based on your action objectives, decide precisely how you hope your audience will respond to your written or oral communication. To define your comuniaction objective, complete this statement: “As a result of this communication, my audience will” Examples Of Objectives General Action Communication Increase customer base. Contract with X number of clients per X time period. As a result of this letter, the client will sign the contract. Develop a sound financial position. Maintain annual debt-toequity ratio no greater than X. As a result of this phonecall, the accountant will give me the pertinent information for my report Hire X number by X date. As a result of this

presentation, at least X number of women will sign up to interview with my firm. Sell X amount by X date. As a result of this presentation, the sales representatives will understand our product enhancements. Increase the number of women hired. Maintain market share b- Which communication style should be choosed? Once you have defined your communication objective, choose the appropriate style to accomplish that objective. The following model, adapted from organizational theorists Tannenbaum and Schmidt, displays the range of communication styles used at various times in virtually any job. The two dimensions to consider how much you want to involve your audience. The more you control, the less you involve; the more you involve, the less you control. 29 In tell/ sell situations, you have enogh information; you know “the answer”. For tell style, you are informing or explaining; you want your audience to learn. For sell style, you are persuading; you want your audience to

perform an action. In consult/ join situations, you do not have enogh information; you do not know “ the answer”. For consult style, you are interacting with your audience with some control (such as meeting or a questionnaire). For join style, you are collaborating with your audience to come up with the content (such as brainstorming session). Your communication style should vary with each situation you encounter. Generally, use tell/sell styles when you (1) have sufficient information, (2) can understand that information without help from others, and (3) are concerned with a quick, logical, orderly decision. Generally, use consult/ join styles when you (1) needmore information, (2) need critical evaluation from other, and (3) are concerned with implementation of the decision. 30 Examples of Objectives and Styles Communication Objective As a result of reading this statement, the employees will understand the benefits progarm available in this company. As a result of this

presentation, my boss will learn what my department has accomplished this month. As a result of reading this letter, my client will sign the enclosed contract. As a result of this presentation, the committee will approve my proposed budget. As a result of reading this survey, the employees will respond by answering the questionnaire. As a result of this question-and-answer session, my staff will voice and obtain replies to their concerns over the new policy. As a result of reading this agenda statement, the group will come to the meeting prepared to offer their thoughts on this issue. As a result of this brainstorming session, the group will come up with a solution to this problem. Communication Style TELL: In these situations, you are instructing or explaining. You want your audience to learn, to understand. You do not need your audience’s opinions. SELL: In these situations, you are persuading. You want your audience to do something different. You need some audience involvement

to do so. CONSULT: In these situations, you are conferring. You need some give-andtake with your audience You want to learn from them yet the control the interaction somewhat. JOIN: In these situations, you are collaborating. You and your audience are working together to come up with the content. c- What is credibility? Once the person have formulated what to accomplish (that is, stated your objective and choosen the appropriate style to accomplish it), consider your audience’s perception of you. In other words, consider your own credibility; their belief, confidence, and faith in you. Their perception of you has a tremendous impact on how you will communicate with them. Five factors- based on social theorists French, Raven, and Kotter- affect your credibility: (1)rank, (2)goodwill, (3)expertise, (4)image, and (5) shared values. Once you understand these factors, you can enhance your credibility by stressing your initial credibility and by increasing your acquired credibility.

Initial Credibility: Initial credibility refers to audience’s perception of you before you even begin to communicate, before they ever read or hear what you have to say. Your initial credibility, then, may stem from their perception of who you are, what you present, or how you related to them previously. As part of your communication strategy, you may want to stress or remind your audience of your initial credibility. Also, in those lucky situations in which your initial credibility is high, you may use it as a “bank account”. If people in your audience regard you highly, they may trust you even in unpopular or extreme decisions or recommendations. Just as drawing on a bank account reduces your 31 bank balance, however, drawing on your initial credibility reduces your credibility balance; you must “deposit” more to your account, perhaps by goodwill gestures of further proof your expertise. Acquired Credibility: In contrast, acquired credibility refers to your audience’s

perception of you after the communication has taken place, after they have read or heard what you have to say. Even if your audience knows nothing about you in advance, your good ideas and your persuasive writing or speaking will help earn you credibility. The obvious way to acquire credibility, therefore, is to do a good job of analyzing and communicating in general. You can however, also use more specific communication techniques to increase your credibility. The chart on below lists these techniques FACTORS AND TECHNIQUES FOR CREDIBILITY Factor Based on Initial Credibility Acquired Credibility Stress by Increase by Rank Hierarchical power Emphasizing your title and rank Associating yourself with someone of high rank (e.g, countersignature or introduction) Goodwill Personal relationships, personal “track record” Referring relationships or to “track record” Building goodwill by citing audience benefits. Expertise Knowledge, competence Image Attractiveness,

audience desire to be like you Shared Values Morality, standards Associating yourself wit or quoting someone your audience consider expert Building your image Emphasizing by identifying yourself attributes audience with your audience’s finds attractive benefits Mentioning values you share with your audience Including a biography or resume 32 Bibliography • CURTIS Dan B., FLOYD James J, WINSOR Jerry L, Business and Professional Communication, Harper Collins Publishers, 1992 • GOLDMAN Alvin, Rojot Jacque, Negotiation Theory and Practice, Kluwer Law International, 2003 • HILTROP Jean M., VDALL Sheila, The Essence of Negotiation, Prentice Hall, 1995 • LEWICKI Ray J., LITERER Joseph A, Negotiation, Irwin • MUNTER Mary, Guide to Managerial Communication, Prentice Hall, 1992 • SCOOT Bill, The Skills of Negotiation, Wildwood House • STANFORD Wayne F., DAWALDER David P, Communicating In Business, Auston Press, 1994 • THILL John V., BOVEE Courtland L, Excellence in

Business Communication, Prentice Hall, 2005 • THOMAS David A., FRYOR Maridell, Business Communication Today, National Textbook Company, Second Edition • www.noogenesiscom • www.wikipediaorg • www. kevanorg • www.businessballscom • www.teleometricscom • www.bartlettcommunicationscom • www. videoyahoocom 33