Sports | Paragliding » Chang-Huang - Paragliding Adventure Recreation Consumers Activity Motivation, Enduring Involvement and Their Involved Behavior

Source: http://www.doksinet Paragliding Adventure Recreation Consumers’ Activity Motivation, Enduring Involvement and Their Involved Behavior Dr. Hsiao-Ming Chang, Professor, Department of Kinesiology, Health, and Leisure Studies, Chienkuo University Technology, Taiwan Yu-Ting Huang, Corresponding Author, Assistant Professor, Office of Physical Education, Asia University, Taiwan ABSTRACT This study analyzes paragliding participants’ enduring involvement. Questionnaires were mailed to all paragliding associations and clubs in Taiwan, with a total of 193 effective ones collected. Canonical correlation analysis and multiple regression obtained several findings. First, strong positive correlation exists between participating motivation and involvement: i.e, stronger motivation means enduring involvement Second, given this significant correlation, their involved behavior, including opinion leadership, innovation, knowledge, and media use, prove stronger if they continue involvement in

these activities. Third, participating motivation of paragliding consumers exerts significant effect on enduring involvement. Fourth, enduring involvement of paragliding consumers exerts a significant effect on involved behavior. These findings deepen understanding of paragliders’ enduring involvement in the adventure and leisure industry, which can afford a critical and explicit reference in marketing and advertising for more practical purposes. Keywords: paragliding, involved behavior, enduring involvement, participating motivation, adventure recreation INTRODUCTION Since the turn of the century, adventure recreation activities have gained popularity in Taiwan: e.g, rafting, canoeing, rock climbing, mountain climbing, mountain biking, scuba diving. Paragliding has grown more fashionable as well, yet few studies deal with this sport, and little is known about specific behavior associated with it. Though adventure recreation, especially as tourist activity, is enjoyed worldwide, few

studies probe adventure recreation consumer behavior (Schott, 2007). Most overseas scholars adopt the Ewert and Hollenhorst (1989) adventure model in data analysis evaluating such activity, while Schuett (1991) found its independent variable “degree of activity participation” lacking a precise measure scale. He suggested replacing it with “enduring involvement” to ascertain how tourists discover their interests and develop their skills (McIntyre & Pigram, 1992). Among relevant studies, only Li and Ou (2002) investigated personal or professional background, recreation motivation, and preferences for environmental traits of paragliding consumers. Ho, Chung, and Chen (2005) employed the Ewert and Hollenhorst (1989) model to confirm that enduring involvement of paragliders meant higher participating frequency, skill level and awareness of risk. Based on relevant empirical research and psychological theory, Robinson (1992) devised a continuous adventure recreation involvement

model, which suggests that those who take part in adventure tourism divide into five stages: (1) psychosocial premise; (2) perceptual process; (3) decision-making process; (4) cognitive/affective process; and (5) involvement in performance evaluation. This process influences continuing adventure recreation involvement The above-mentioned adventure models of recreation provide an important reference for the direction of future research, whereas few scholars emphasize these patterns for authentication, or make it more specific for development and innovation. Past empirical research focused on correlations, differences, and/or environmental attribute preferences (Ho, Chung & Chen, 2005; Li & Ou, 2002). Some explored demographic and behavioral differences (Oliveira, & Pereira, 2008; Watson & Pulford, 2004) or analyzed regional development paragliding’s impact on regional economy (Costa & Chalip, 2005). Others investigated involvement with regard to sports injury

(Bentley, Macky, & Edwards, 2006) and The Journal of International Management Studies, Volume 7 Number 2, October, 2012 61 Source: http://www.doksinet psychological impact (Willing, 2008). In addition to behavior of adventure recreation participation, many concerns focus on motivation (Fluker & Turner, 2000; Oliveira, & Pereira, 2008). Little research has explored the importance of behavior(s) in ongoing participation. While previous adventure recreation behavior exerts vital influence (Schuett, 1993), less empirical research explores participation in these activities. Little is known about behavior(s) of continued involvement. Pomfret (2006) suggested that future study analyze involvement impact on participants in depth. Lacking paragliding adventure recreation, adventure recreation participation motives, enduring involvement and/or integrated behavioral study, we must correlate these variables. Besides complementing theoretical study gap, it can also serve as the

basis for development of paragliding activities in marketing and promotion strategies. This study analyzes paragliding consumers’ motivation as well as enduring involvement and/or influence. Further analysis focuses on circumstances of their continued involvement We hope our empirical results provide the recreation service industry with a reference in planning products and services. LITERATURE REVIEW Adventure Recreation and Participating Motivation Ewert (1989) defined outdoor adventure pursuits as self-initiated activities utilizing interaction with natural environment that contains elements of real or apparent danger. While uncertain, outcome can be influenced by participants and/or circumstances (p.6) Ewert and Hollenhorst (1997) defined adventure recreation: “structural components of real or perceived danger and usually involve a natural environment setting in which the outcome is uncertain but influenced by the participant (p.21)” Swarbrooke, Beard, Leckie, and Pomfret

(2003) pointed out that certain settings and activities were strongly associated with adventure experience, plus activities associated with adventure physical activity. Weber (2001) stated that definition of adventure tourism traditionally centered on adventure recreation (Hall & Weiler, 1992): e.g, whitewater rafting, kayaking, rock climbing, paragliding, scuba diving, mountain climbing. These differ from traditional outdoor recreation activities because they entail physical danger and outcome uncertainty in engagement (Ewert & Hollenhorst, 1989), and accordingly were characterized by interplay of competence and risk (Martin & Priest, 1986). Based on the above definition and classification, paragliding consumers studied in this project form one part of adventure recreation. Why do people still engage in adventure recreation, despite high risk? According to Hall and Weiler (1992), major motivations for adventure activities were stimulation, self-adventure,

self-actualization, contact nature, and social contact. First antecedent to enduring involvement in adventure recreation, adventure and challenge appears in previous studies as a motivating factor (Dowd, 2004; Lipscombe, 2007; Weber, 2001). Li and Ou (2002) evaluated 101 paragliders’ preferences for environmental attributes and found their major motivations were contacting people with the same hobby, challenging skill, affirming self, relaxing body and mind, and flying interest. Sociability and contact nature was the second antecedent (Costa & Chalip, 2005; Creyer et al., 2003; Pidgeon et al, 2003) Schuett (1993) used social orientation as an independent variable affecting enduring involvement. Lastly, Ho, Chung, and Chen (2005) cited social motives as one of four general reasons for paragliding. Social aspects (sociability) may wield strong effect on motivation for paragliding. Lastly, Li and Ou (2002), while refining measures of involvement in adventure recreation, chose

“relax body and mind” as one of thirteen domains to concentrate on, which was based on past research and input from experts in the field. These findings were deemed adequate evidence for use of relax body and mind as a motivating variable in this study of enduring involvement in paragliding. Schuett (1993) and McIntyre (1992) strongly supported enduring involvement as a variable motivating individual adventure recreation. Related studies of leisure behavior show strong correlation between motivation and enduring involvement (Iwasaki, Havitz, 2004; Kyle, Absher, Hammitt, & Cavin, 2006). For in leisure activity, it has intermediary effect (McGinnis, & Gentry, 2004). H1.Paraglider consumers’ motivation and enduring involvement positively correlate H2.Paragliders’ participating motivation has direct positive effect on enduring involvement in paragliding activities 62 The Journal of International Management Studies, Volume 7, Number 2, October, 2012 Source:

http://www.doksinet Enduring involvement and Involved behavior Enduring involvement is one key variable affecting diverse consumer behaviors and intrinsic characteristics (Kyle, Absher, Hammitt, & Cavin, 2006). Higie and Feick (1989, p690) define it as “an individual difference variable representing an arousal potential of a product or activity that causes personal relevance” and state: “Enduring involvement is intrinsically motivated by the degree to which the product or activity is related to the individual’s self-image pleasure received from thoughts about or the use of product or engaging in an activity” (p.690) Although enduring involvement is an unobservable state, it does yield observable behavioral outcomes. Empirical studies of adventure recreation do not explicitly indicate such behaviors after people continuously take part in adventure recreation. With adventure recreation and sport consumer behavior, as well as empirical research interpretation, we infer

behavior of paragliding consumers’ enduring involvement in such activities may arise. Chang, Lin and Yu (2004) find enduring involvement as joggers’ intervening variables in involvement motivation and leisure behavior: e.g, innovativeness, knowledge, opinion leadership, media use. Researchers employ these to infer that paragliding consumers’ enduring involvement will produce the above-cited behavior. Each consequence is discussed below Innovation means to change and improve. We commonly define it as introduction of new products, but innovation does not always mean that, although change in technology, service, new marketing channels, product changes, etc. are innovative (Chang, 2008). Hirschman (1980) proposed conceptual framework consisting of three constructs: innovativeness, novelty seeking, and creativity. It was inherent willingness of a consuming population to innovate Rogers and Shoemaker (1971) viewed innovativeness as a “relative” dimension one had either more or less

of than others in a social system: i.e, essentially a continuous variable. Bloch (1986) pointed out that people with strong product class interest (involvement) were likely to learn and innovate after a product was introduced, arguing that awareness of innovation was a fundamental prerequisite for adopting some new product. Paragliding consumers use a parachute and flight equipment These are neither static nor non-damageable; replacement of equipment is commonplace, especially when manufacturers import and consumers take the opportunity to purchase new equipment. It is thus hypothesized that positive correlation exists between paragliders’ enduring involvement and innovativeness in the paragliding field. The next outcome, knowledge, has similarly received a large amount attention in several areas. Knowledge in this study refers to perceived knowledge Park, Gardner, and Thukral (1988) defined “perceived knowledge” as self-assessment or feeling of knowing information required to

rate brands in a product class. Flynn and Goldsmith (1994) justified inclusion of perceived knowledge in their study because it was a hallmark of opinion leaders, who felt very confident about their levels of knowledge in a product category. In relation to interest or involvement, Srinivasan and Ratchford (1991) noted that knowledge not only correlated with interest, but also led to enthusiastic search for product information. Consumers tended to search more simply because they were interested in the product (cars in their study). In line with these arguments, Chan and Misra (1990) found people deeply involved in a product or product class more likely to show interest in and to accumulate relevant knowledge about that product. Related studies of adventure (Dimmock, 2009; Sibthorp, Paisley, Gookin, 2007), also found participants deeply involved in activities with a high degree of knowledge. In this sense, enduring product involvement will be stable enough to influence amount of

information individuals accumulate from various sources over time. Media use has similar linkage to involvement or interest This term refers to utilizing media relevant to the interest area; enduring involvement is likely to activate vigorous and continuous product information search (Venkartaman, 1990). Avid exercise may motivate people to subscribe to adventure magazines, visit outdoor recreation stores, and seek product information. Since product information contributes to individual knowledge or exercise level (Bloch, 1986; Bloch, Black, & Lichenstein, 1989), those with enduring involvement always welcome new information. Srinivasan and Ratchford (1991) noted positive correlation between information search and interest-related factors like reading “interest” and conversing about it. More involvement brought about more usage of media: e.g, magazines, newspapers Bloch (1986) regarded highly involved individuals as opinion leaders abler to relate products, participate more

often in consumer activity, and derive satisfaction therefrom. Special-interest magazines cater to diverse hobbyists and enthusiasts (Bloch, 1986). He also noted how uninvolved consumers rarely focused on magazines (Bloch, 1986); thus it could be assumed that high circulation numbers mean high level of product The Journal of International Management Studies, Volume 7 Number 2, October, 2012 63 Source: http://www.doksinet interest (involvement). Besides making individuals more media-prone, product expertise renders individuals (enthusiasts) more influential among other consumers (Bloch, 1986): i.e, as opinion leaders often mentioned in related literature (Bloch, Black, & Lichtenstein, 1989). Research finds that consumers continuing involvement in some product have deeper knowledge, laying groundwork for opinion leadership (Allen, 2001). Prior study noted that consumers frequently relied on opinion leaders before purchasing (Bloch, 1986; Chang, Lin & Yu, 2004). Interpersonal

communication is an important medium for idea exchange in society, and Bloch (1986) stated that opinion leaders generally enjoyed talking with others about their source of enthusiasm. Strong product interest stimulated product-related conversation that might entail purchase recommendation or simple expression of delight in the product category (Bloch et al., 1989) Chan and Misra (1990) cited opinion leaders as more continuously involved with a relevant product class. People highly involved with a product (class) were more likely interested in these, accumulating knowledge of said product(s), and thus viewed as abler to impart relevant opinions (Chan & Misra, 1990). Enduring involvement shows linkage with opinion leadership (Allen, 2001; Venkatraman, 1990) and characteristics regarding paragliding. H3.Enduring involvement and involved behavior (innovativeness, knowledge, media use, and opinion leadership) of paragliding consumers show significant positive correlation. H4.Enduring

involvement wields direct positive effect on involvement (innovativeness, knowledge, media use, and opinion leadership). METHODOLOGY Subjects and Sampling Subjects are those who engage in paragliding; those with professional and commercial umbrella visitors to a carpool paragliding coach are not in the scope of this study. Although paragliding clubs are widespread on Taiwan, actual enrollment remains undetermined because some members are difficult to contact. Based on approximate data provided by clubs, some 250 continued said activity, meaning census survey was used. Questionnaires were mailed to these 250 members in Taiwan, but only 193 questionnaires were valid in sampling. Data were collected from 10 paragliding associations and clubs: Ping Tung County Hunter Paragliding Club, Kaohsiung County Sun-Bird Paragliding Club, Keelung City Wild Horse Paragliding Club, Taitung County Paragliding Association, Hualien County Paragliding Association, Yilan County Paragliding Association,

Taipei County Paragliding Association, Taoyuan County Paragliding Association, Hsinchu County Paragliding Association, and Nantou County Paragliding Association) from January 1th to Marth 25th of 2009. Part Five of the questionnaire provides background information on subjects Instruments The research instrument included three parts. First was the scale of motivation (17 items), based on literature by Drivers (1977), who developed recreation experience preference scale (REP), leisure motivation scale developed by Beard and Raghed (1983), and adventure recreation relative research (Ewert, 1989; Ewert & Hollenhorst, 1997; Ho, Chung, & Chen, 2005; Schuett, 1993; Walle, 1997; Weber, 2001). Second, the enduring involvement scale had 12 items, constructed by Zaichkowsky (1994), who developed short item personal involvement inventory (PII). The third part, involved behavior, comprises 22 items (Bloch, 1986; Bloch, Black, & Lichenstein, 1989; Chan & Misra, 1990; Venkatraman,

1990). Three scales all adopt Likert 5-point scale, from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1) Besides, this instrument includes seven demographic attribution items. Statistical Design and Analytical Techniques 1. 2. 3. Procedures of data processing for effectively retrieved questionnaires are as follows: Item analysis and correlation analysis to examine whether the questionnaire possesses the identification or not. Exploratory factor analysis and Cronbach,s α tests questionnaire validity and reliability. Canonical correlation analysis identifies links among participating motivation, enduring involvement and involved behavior of paragliding consumers. 64 The Journal of International Management Studies, Volume 7, Number 2, October, 2012 Source: http://www.doksinet 4. Multiple regression analysis examines whether participating motivation of paragliders can predict enduring involvement, then tests predictability of enduring involvement on involved behavior. RESULTS

Description of Sample Among 193 respondents, effective sample size of gender was 181: 158 males and 23 females (12 missing values); 120 married and 73 unmarried (16 missing values). Age of 185 subjects (8 missing values) ranged from 18 to 63, a plurality 31-40 (N=70, 37.8%) years old For educational level, effective sample size was of 186 (7 missing values); largest group was at college level (58, 31.2%), a few holding masters or doctorates (24, 129%) As for monthly income, effective sample size was 185 (8 missing values): NT$40,001-60,000 (N=57, 30.8%); NT$80,001-100,000 (N=10, 3.8%) Moreover, a plurality held jobs in the service industry (44, 233%), with a lone retiree (N=1, 05%) Most respondents (N=72, 39.1%) indicated that they took part in paragliding at least ten times in the past three months, with few participating 31-40 times (N=7, 3.8%) Table 1 details the sample profile Demographic characteristics Gender Male Female Marital status Married Unmarried Age Under 20 21～30

31～40 41～50 51～60 61 and over Education level High school and under Junior College University Postgraduate (master & doctor) Monthly income(NT$)a Below 20,000 20,001～40,000 40,001～60,000 60,001～80,000 80,001～100,000 ≧100,000 Non-income Occupation Military & Government, Services sector Information industry Manufacturing Business Building & Construction industry Housekeeper Health care workers Self-employed Table 1: Respondent Profile Frequency Percentage(%) 158 23 87.3% 21.7% 120 57 67.8% 32.2% 8 26 70 58 20 3 4.3% 14.1% 37.8% 31.4% 10.8% 1.6% 50 54 58 24 26.9% 29% 31.2% 12.9% 17 45 57 29 10 15 12 9.2% 24.3% 30.8% 15.7% 5.4% 8.1% 6.5% 16 44 28 25 14 12 1 2 12 8.5% 23.4% 14.9% 13.3% 7.4% 6.4% 0.5% 1.1% 6.4% The Journal of International Management Studies, Volume 7 Number 2, October, 2012 65 Source: http://www.doksinet Financial sector Others Times of paragliding/3 months 10 times and less 20times and less 30 times and less 40times and less

50times and less 6 0 times and less 61times and more 7 4 3.7% 2.1% 72 41 23 7 13 16 12 39.1% 22.3% 12.5% 3.8% 7.1% 8.7% 6.5% VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS Item analysis and correlation analysis First, item analysis tested discriminatory power of each scale. We took items significant on the independent sample t-test at p<.05, and decided that critical ratio should be over 3 as discriminatory power To be more critical, we correlated r value between each item and total score exceeding 0.4 as the criterion of item deletion Item analysis and correlation show that on the scale of paragliding motivation, for all items Critical Ratio (CR)=-7.82 to -1567, p<01, Correlation Coefficient r=.61 to 81, p<01; on the enduring involvement scale, for all items CR=-1107 to -1851, p<01, r =.74 to 85, p<01, and on the involved scale, for all items CR=-641 to 1287, p<01, r =048 to 079, p<01 Results show high consistency. Factor analysis We employed exploratory

factor analysis, principal component analysis and varimax rotation for factor analysis of questionnaire items. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin was conducted first Results showed KMO value of 933 for “participating motivation”, very close to value of 1; KMO value for “enduring involvement” was .940, also very close to 1; for “involved behavior” .920, again very close to 1 All indicated sampling as appropriate The Bartlett’s Sphere Test showed 2100.54 (p<001) for “participating motivation” scale, 158292 (p<001) for “enduring involvement”, and 2946.80 (p<001) for “involved behavior” These indicated common variation existed in each factor and factor analysis could accordingly be conducted. Participating motivation Factor/item Table 2: Factor Analysis of participating motivation Factor Variance Cumulative variance loading explained(%) explained(%) Social interaction 16. to establish interaction with others 11. to enjoy group experience 3. to be with one’s friends

15. to meet new friends Adventure and challenge 2. to have adventure experience 7. to experience sense of stimulation 13. to challenge self-competence 14. to gain a sense of excitement, self-confidence and achievement 10. to experience thrill and danger Nature orientation 5. to challenge nature 4. to be close to nature 17. to enjoy the smells and sights of nature 12. to experience nature environment 66 Cronbach, α .72 .70 .66 .54 53.78 53.78 .86 .71 .68 .63 7.16 60.94 .87 5.08 66.02 .86 .59 .57 .79 .65 .63 .50 The Journal of International Management Studies, Volume 7, Number 2, October, 2012 Source: http://www.doksinet Body health 8.to promote body health 6.to avoid the hustle and bustle of daily activities Relax stress 1.to relieve stress and tension 9.to relax physically and mentally Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)=.933 .81 .78 4.94 70.96 .73 .78 .56 3.92 74.88 .73 Barlett’s =2100.54 (p<001), df=136 After exploratory factor analysis, we extracted factors

from the scale of motivation (social interaction, adventure and challenge, nature orientation, physical health, and relax stress), each according to their characteristics. Accumulated variation reaches 74.88: ie, explanatory power to explain participating motivation of paragliders attains 7488% Enduring involvement Factor/item Table 3: Factor analysis of enduring involvement Factor Variance Cumulative variance loading explained(%) explained(%) Centrality and self-expression 11. The majority of my friends is associated with paragliding. 10. My life is closely related to paragliding 12. I like to discuss paragliding with friends 9. My personality traits can be revealed through engaging in paragliding activities. 8. While other tourists are paragliding, I can see their personality traits very easily. 7. While engaging in paragliding, I can truthfully express myself. Enjoyment and importance 1. Paragliding is one of the most satisfactory activities for me. 2. I am extremely fond of

paragliding 3. Paragliding is one of the most delightful activities for me. 4. Paragliding is very interesting to me 5. Paragliding is very important to me 6. When life pressure is increasing, paragliding can effectively relax my mind and body. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)=.94 .89 Cronbach, α 58.88 58.88 .92 11.73 70.61 .90 .83 .77 .72 .71 .69 .84 .83 .81 .80 .61 .60 Barlett’s =1582.92 (p<001), df=66 After exploratory factor analysis, we extracted two factors from the “enduring involvement” scale: centrality and self-expression as well as enjoyment and importance (McIntyre, 1992; Zaichkowsky, 1994). Accumulated variation reaches 70.61: ie, explanatory power to explain enduring involvement of paragliders attains 7061%, as shown in Table 3 Involved behavior Factor/item Table 4: Factor analysis of involved behavior Factor Variance Cumulative variance loading explained(%) explained(%) Opinion leadership 4. My opinion always influence others’ purchase of paragliding

equipment 6. Sometimes other paragliders always purchase paragliding equipment according to my opinion 1. For other paragliders, I am a good paragliding .77 20.97 20.97 Cronbach, α .90 .76 .75 The Journal of International Management Studies, Volume 7 Number 2, October, 2012 67 Source: http://www.doksinet information resource 2. I can understand everything about paragliding 5. I can judge paragliding equipment quality 8. When I want to buy paragliding equipment, I think I have sufficient understanding and confidence. 3. I like talking about paragliding with other paragliders Innovativeness 24. When other paragliders possess a new roduct for paragliding, I would like to buy it and get the possession of that product. 22. I always know about a new paragliding product before others. 20. If I know about new paragliding product going on the market, I am usually interested in buying it 19. I will buy paragliding equipment only where there is a discount. 13. Generally speaking, the

price of paragliding equipment is very important to me. 14. If I think the price of paragliding equipment is too high, I will buy less equipment. Knowledge 7. When I want to purchase paragliding equipment, I don’t ask opinions from anyone 10. Among the paragliding enthusiasts, I am an expert 11. I can always have access to information about paragliding 9. I have erudite knowledge for paragliding 12. I can tell whether or not a paragliding product is worth. 17. As a matter of fact, a paragliding product of excellent quality is worth spending more money. Media use 15. Frequency of watching TV 16. Frequency of using Internet 18. Frequency of reading newspaper 21. Frequency of reading books 23. Frequency of reading magazine Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO)=.92 .74 .71 .73 .57 .80 18.06 39.03 .85 14.18 53.21 .90 13.30 66.50 .86 .76 .75 .67 .61 .50 .75 .73 .63 .62 .61 .53 .85 .78 .77 .64 .56 Barlett’s =2946.80 (p<001), df=276 After exploratory factor analysis, we extracted four

factors from the “involved behavior” scale: opinion leadership, innovativeness, knowledge, and media use. Accumulated variation reaches 6650: ie, explanatory power to explain the involved behavior of paragliders attains 66.50%, as shown in Table 4 Testing Model of Paragliding Consumers, Activity Participating Motivation, Enduring Involvement, and Their Involved Behavior Roots 1 to 5 2 to 5 3 to 5 4 to 5 5 to 5 Wilks L. .460 .758 .967 .995 .998 Table 5: Dimension reduction analysis F Hypoth. DF 5.096* 30 2.590* 20 .508 12 .158 6 .165 2 Error DF 714 594.63 476.53 362 182 Sig. of F .000 .000 .910 .987 .847 *p<.05 68 The Journal of International Management Studies, Volume 7, Number 2, October, 2012 Source: http://www.doksinet Canonical correlation analysis in Table 5 shows that out of five pairs, results from the first two prove significant (p<.05); Wilkes Λvalues are 460 and 758, respectively In so doing, both pairs of canonical correction effectively explain

correlation between control variables (X) and criterion variable (Y). Covariate (X Variables) Social interact Adventure & challenge Nature orientation Body health Relax stress Pct Var DE Cum Pct Var CO Table 6: Eigenvalues and canonical correlations χ1 χ2 Dependent variables (Y variables) -.893 .151 Central & self-expre -.901 .349 Enjoyment & importance -.828 .310 Opinion leadership -.687 -.403 Innovativeness -.874 -.305 Knowledge Media use 27.757 2.143 Pct Var DE Cum 70.637 9.918 Pct Var CO ρ2 ρ η1 -.854 -.875 -.051 .063 -.172 -.181 10.235 26.045 .393 .627* η2 .339 -.334 -.323 -.693 -.300 -.096 3.278 15.172 .216 .465* *p<.05 In Table 6, two canonical correlation coefficients reach .05 level of significance: the firstρ1=27 and secondρ2=.465 Five covariates affect two criterion canonical factors First canonical variable (χ1) in covariates will explain variance in the first canonical factor (η1) by 39.30%, and the first canonical factors explain variance in

criterion by 26.05% With redundancy at 1024%, covariates explain variance in criterion by 1024% via first canonical factors (χ1 andη1 ). The second canonical variable in covariates can explain variance in the second canonical factor of dependent variables by 21.60%; first canonical factor can explain variance in dependent variables by 1517% Since redundancy is 3.28%, covariates explain variance in criterion by 328% via the second canonical factors Redundancy of covariates and dependent variables in the first and second canonical factors is 13.52% In other words, five variables in “participating motivation” explain variance in six variables by 13.52% via the first and second canonical factors; these two directly explain total variance in “enduring involvement” and “involved behavior” of paragliding participators by 60.9% Between pairs of canonical correlation and redundancy, canonical correlation in the first is stronger, redundancy in the second pair smaller. Therefore,

five covariates affect six criteria mainly through the first canonical factor Among five covariates, “adventure and challenge” factor has stronger correlation with the first canonical factor (χ1): structure coefficient -.09 Among criteria, “centrality and self-expression” in “enduring involvement” plus “enjoyment and importance” have a closer relationship with the first factor (χ1): structural coefficients over .80 Results hint that five principal variables in covariates affect “enduring involvement” and “involved behavior”. Structure coefficient is negative: lower “participating motivation” of paragliders means less “enduring involvement” and “involved behavior”. Figure 1 draws path analysis of canonical correlation among motivation, enduring involvement and involved behavior of paragliders. The Journal of International Management Studies, Volume 7 Number 2, October, 2012 69 Source: http://www.doksinet Figure 1: Canonical Correlation of

Paragliders’ Motivation, Enduring Involvement, and Involved Behavior In addition, this study employed multiple regression analysis to understand the effect of participating motivation on enduring involvement and involved behavior. Multiple regression coefficients of motivation and enduring involvement on various factors of involved behavior emerged by treating various factors of participating motivation and enduring involvement as predictable variables, and involved behavior as criterion variables (Tables 7-8). Table 7: Multiple regression analysis: Motivation for enduring involvement and involved behavior Enduring involvement Involved Behavior Factors Centrality and Enjoyment and Opinion Innovativeness Knowledge Media use self-expression importance leadership Participating Motivation Beta t-value Beta t-value Beta t-value Beta t-value Beta t-value Beta t-value Social interaction .155 1293* .137 11.60* .051 367* -.002 .116 -.070 -501* .049 351* Adventure and challenge .242 2001* .031

2.61* -.147 -1043* -.189 -1397* -.168 -1187* .169 1197* Nature of orientation .173 1466* -.017 -1.49 -.037 -267* -.259 -1967* .006 .459 -057 -417* Body health -.050 -614* .141 17.45* .092 964* .220 2408* .090 9.42 008 .830 Relax stress .047 4.77* .346 35.75* .166 1452* .266 2431* .116 1015 015 1.31 *p<.05 Table 7 plots five motivation factors affecting enduring involvement as well as centrality and self-expression. Factors of social interaction, adventure/challenge, physical health and relieving stress exert effect on enjoyment and importance. As for involved behavior, all five motivation factors affect opinion leadership, whereas only four (adventure/challenge, nature of orientation, physical health and relieving stress) have effect on innovativeness. Social interaction and adventure/challenge wield effect on the knowledge factor. Three motivational factors, social interaction, adventure/challenge, and nature of orientation, affect media use. 70 The Journal of International

Management Studies, Volume 7, Number 2, October, 2012 Source: http://www.doksinet Table 8: Multiple regression analysis of enduring involvement on involved behavior Involved Behavior Factors Opinion leadership Innovativeness Knowledge Media use Beta t-value Beta t-value Beta t-value Beta t-value Enduring involvement Centrality and self-expression -.096 -9.76* -.633 -64.91* -.362 -34.32* .029 2.72* Enjoyment and importance .526 53.49* .606 62.15* .436 41.42* .242 22.62* *p<.05 Table 8 shows opinion leadership and centrality, along with self-expression, wielding effect on all four factors in involved behavior. Discussion Sample characteristics show fewer people’s continued behavior and/or women engaged in paragliding. Researchers reverify participants’ description of paragliding, the major reason remains so-called adventure recreation constraints for women (Little, 2002). Dangerous and costly activities, as well as personal and family matters, make the number of participants

few. As for marital status, we discovered more married persons engaged in these activities When consulted, married men cited more economic stable and less pressure from family parenting, such that more married men took part. Also, paragliding is costly, so we found participants personal monthly income averaging NT$36,680 per capita. In terms of vocation and education, a wider variety emerges; paragliding activities are not affected by occupation and education level. As for times to participate over three months, ten times or less constitute the majority, mainly because of working hours. This study analyzes paragliders’ participation motivation and continued involvement, results described and discussed as follows. First, for linkage between participation motivation and continued involvement, data showed strong positive correlation, indicating paragliders’ continued involvement in activity related to social interaction, nature of orientation, adventure and challenge, physical health,

and relieving stress. This also supported previous findings: positive correlation between participation motivation and enduring involvement (Iwasaki & Havitz, 2004; Kyle, Absher, Hammitt, & Cavin, 2006; McIntyre, 1992; Schuett, 1993). Thus, Hypothesis 1 is established We found paragliding motivation had significant predictive power on sustained involvement, thus establishing Hypothesis 2. Results support Schuett (1993) and McIntyre (1992), who pointed out that adventure tourists’ enduring involvement in activities mainly arose from high level of participation motivation. The present study found paragliders continue to participate mainly via experience of challenging nature; they gain satisfaction and release mental pressure. They continue to participate and maintain friendship, even meet new friends. After enduring involvement, they apply flying activities as a center of their lives so as to express themselves. They believe participation and fun crucial Results echo Chang’s

(2007) study: paragliding participants and their enduring involvement to a high degree become part of their own lives, such that they continue to participate in the activities. These results show that paragliders continue to participate mainly because of social interaction, nature of orientation, and adventure/challenge (Dowd, 2004; Hall & Weiler, 1992; Ho, Chung, & Chen, 2005; Lipscombe, 2007; Weber, 2001). Li and Ou (2002) pointed out relax body and mind”lingers as one of major motivation for paragliding activities. Results draw correlation between sustained involvement and involvement, confirming Hypothesis 3. Findings suggest paragliders have opinion leadership, innovation, knowledge, behavior, and media use, all related to enduring involvement (centrality and self-expression, enjoyment, and importance). Further analysis found sustained involvement has significant predictive power on involvement behavior, which established Hypothesis 4. This supports Chang, Lin and Yu’s

(2004) study of sustained involvement in activities. These results point to sustained involvement affected by intervening variables in motivation and involved behavior; they also support sustained involvement mediating effect of participation in leisure activity (McGinnis, & Gentry, 2004). This study confirmed that, in the realm of sustained involvement, product innovation in parachutes and other equipment is not static. Damage will occur, such that replacement with new equipment often occurs, especially when manufacturers import new equipment and/or consumers take the opportunity. This yields evidence of consumers with high involvement and interest in products manifesting innovation (Bloch, 1986). With paragliders continuously The Journal of International Management Studies, Volume 7 Number 2, October, 2012 71 Source: http://www.doksinet involved, they often discuss paragliding with partners, understand functionality of a parachute, act as sources of information, and become

opinions leaders, as scholars posit (Bloch, Black, & Lichenstein, 1989; Chan & Misra, 1990; Flynn & Goldsmith, 1994). This illustrates linkage between sustained involvement and opinion leadership (Allen, 2001; Venkartaman, 1990): for consumers to become opinion leaders, this statement relates to product knowledge (Chan & Misra, 1990; Flynn & Goldsmith, 1994; Ratchford, 1991). This study found paragliders understanding equipment as they grew more involved in activities. Most consumers need not seek others’ opinions but make their own clear judgments, proving that consumers involved in paragliding prepare essential knowledge. This study confirms that when paragliders continue activities of interest, they promulgate new product information, as well as understanding of development of paragliding activities, thus generating media use: e.g, reading newspapers, books, or magazines, watching TV programs related to paragliding activities. Consumers also use Internet to

gather new information Bloch, (1986), Bloch, Black, & Lichenstein (1989), and Venkartaman (1990) pointed out consumers gather product information to bolster their knowledge. This research supports the above argument; validation of assumptions, analysis of results and discussion suggest the following for promotion and marketing of paragliding: For activity promotion Given the popularity in Taiwan of adventure recreation, the ratio of people taking part in outdoor activities remains high, yet mostly focuses on mountain climbing and water activities. Although people prefer paragliding, cost of participation as well as equipment is expensive. It entails risk, so there could be difficulties in promotion However, findings of the study posit that those who continue paragliding enjoy the natural challenge therefrom. People not only achieve social interaction, but also release physical and mental pressure to upgrade health. Governmental tourism and exercise departments can combine agents of

paragliding clubs and supplies to organize reasonable prices for commercial promotion. When people experience the joy of paragliding, they learn to engage in activities that benefit the public in physical, mental, and social aspects. Maintaining and escalating continuous consuming This study found sustained involvement arising from intervening variables of motivation and involvement. Results portend that when consumers continued to engage in such activities, products afford opportunities for sustaining sales. As consumers of continuing involvement in paragliding, they not only see activities as a core of their lives but, more importantly, engage in any activity as a pleasure they deem important. The researchers visited and investigated paragliding clubs; they sensed, regardless of weekdays or holidays, as long as members have free time, they go to clubs, which become an important center of life. From this perspective, the researchers suggested clubs playing a key role, since they

maintain operational sources: e.g, membership fees, members buying umbrellas and other equipment Most members buy equipment via agents and vendors. When agents join a club as members, they also provide funds and discount products to help operation of the club as well as improving the club environment. These enhance and maintain continuous involvement in activities. In marketing Positive correlation exists between sustained involvement and product purchase. This study found paragliders’ sustained involvement leading to product innovation due to needs of participants. Owing to accumulation of experience, participants equip themselves with a higher degree of product knowledge and show concern toward paragliding information in newspapers, magazines, and other mass media. Some members become opinion leaders Since most paragliding members gain no information through shopping, some comes from opinion leaders, while some seek for information via Internet. For paragliding supply agents, they

join a club as members and more importantly, become opinion leaders who hold a higher degree of product knowledge, providing members the latest product and event information, the most effective means of direct sales. Likewise, owing to limited foreign language skills of members, paragliding supply agents should set up websites to supply members with product information. This will not only enhance product visibility and transfer of product information, but also introduction of new foreign knowledge, as well as the latest activity reports to boost sales. 72 The Journal of International Management Studies, Volume 7, Number 2, October, 2012 Source: http://www.doksinet Some suggestions for further research: As for popular domestic and overseas adventure recreation like rafting, canoeing, rock climbing, mountain climbing, mountain biking or scuba diving, we suggest that future study compare and contrast to establish links among motivation, sustained involvement and leisure behavior.

Further research should also differentiate adventure recreation activities, motives, continued involvement and leisure behavior. The researchers found paragliding a phenomenon dependent on climatic factors, going to different flight sites when engaging in such activities. Some participants had their activities interrupted, but resumed them later. This study has no comprehensive survey of their reasons Future researchers can learn more about paragliders’ motives. They can also learn why participants continue after interruption of these activities. In this study, motivation, enduring involvement and leisure behavior analysis involved consumer behavior on the surface, but such behavior is not immutable; there may be other motivating factors as well as continued involvement in leisure activity. Future study based on behavioral theory and literature of adventure recreation will evaluate adventure recreation participants. REFERENCES Allen, P. W (2001) Assessing the usefulness of an opinion

leadership scale to the diffusion of new accounting services Journal of Professional Services Marketing, 21(2), 149-159. Beard, J. G, & Raghed, MG (1983) Measuring leisure motivation Journal of Leisure Research, 15(3), 219-228 Bentley, T., Page, S J, & Macky, K A (2006) Adventure tourism and adventure sports injury: The New Zealand experience Applied Ergonomics, 38(6), 791-796. Bloch, P. H (1986) The product enthusiast: Implication for marketing strategy Journal of Consumer Marketing, 3, 51-62 Bloch, P. H, Black, W C, & Lichtenstein, D L (1989) Involvement with the equipment component of sport: Link to recreation commitment Leisure Science, 11(3), 187-200. Chan, K. K, & Misra, S (1990) Characteristics of the opinion leader: A new dimension Journal of Advertising 19(3), 53-60 Chang, H. M (2007) A study of paragliding participants their adventure recreation participative behavior model Journal of Sport and Recreation Management, 4(1), 1-13. Chang, H. M (2008) Leisure

consumer behavior Taiwan, Taipei: Far Du Publishing Co Chang, H. M, Lin, S W, & Yu, K C (2004) A study of the relationship among jogging consumers, activity participation motivation, enduring involvement, and leisure behavior. Sports & Exercise Research, 6(1), 83-93 Costa, C. A, & Chalip, L (2005) Adventure sport tourism in rural revitalization: An ethnographic evaluation European Sport Management Quarterly, 5(3), 257-279. Creyer, E. H, Ross, W T & Evers, D (2003) Risky recreation: An exploration of factors influencing the likelihood of participation and the effects of experience. Leisure Studies, 22(3), 239-253 Dimmock, K. (2009) Finding comfort in adventure: Experiences of recreational SCUBA divers Leisure Studies, 28(3), 279-235 Dowd, J. (2004) Risk and the outdoor adventure experience: Good risk, bad risk, real risk, apparent risk, objective risk, subjective risk Australian Journal of Outdoor Education, 8(1), 69-70. Driver, B. (1977) Item pool for scales designed to

quantify the psychological outcomes desired and expected from recreational participation Unpublished manuscript, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, USDA Forest Service Recreation Project, Ft. Collins, CO Ewert, A. (1989) Outdoor adventure pursuits: Foundations, model, and theories Columbus, OH: Publishing Horizons Ewert, A., & Hollenhorst, S (1989) Testing the adventure model: Empirical support for a model of risk recreation Journal of Leisure Research, 21, 124-139. Ewert, A., & Hollenhorst, S (1997) Adventure recreation and its implications for wilderness International Journal of Wilderness, 3(2), 21-26 Fluker, M. R, & Turner, L W (2000) Needs, motivations and expectations of a commercial whitewater rafting experience Journal of Travel Research, 38, 380-389. Flynn, L. R, & Goldsmith, R E (1994) Opinion leadership in green consumption: An exploratory study Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 9(3), 543- 553. HallL, C. M, & Weiler, B (1992)

Introduction In B WEILER & C M HALL (Eds), Special interest tourism (1-14) London: Belhaven Press The Journal of International Management Studies, Volume 7 Number 2, October, 2012 73 Source: http://www.doksinet Higie, R. A, & Feick, L F (1989) Enduring involvement: Conceptual and measurement issues Advances in Consumer Research, 16 (1), 690-96 Hirschman, E. C (1980) Innovativeness, novelty seeking, and consumer creativity Journal of Consumer Research, 7(3), 283-295 Ho, L. H, Chung, C W, & Chen, H T (2005) Applying adventure model for behavior of participators in paragliding Tourism Research Bulletin, 11(4), 275-300. Iwasaki, Y. & Havitz, M E (2004) Examining relationships between leisure involvement, psychological commitment, and loyalty to a recreation agency. Journal of Leisure Research, 36, 45-72 Kyle, G. T, Absher, J D, Hammitt, W E, & CAVIN, J (2006) An examination of the motivation-Involvement relationship Leisure Sciences, 28, 467-485. Li, M. H, &

Ou, S H (2002) Relationships between participants, characteristics of Prar-Glider and Preferences of Environmental attributes In 4th Leisure, Recreation, and Tourism Processing: Leisure Theory and Recreation Behavior (263-270). Taipei: The Outdoor Recreation Association of R. O C Lipscombe, N. (2007) The risk management paradox for urban recreation and park managers: Providing high risk recreation within a risk management context. Annals of Leisure Research, 10(1), 3-25 Little, D. E (2002) Women and adventure recreation: Reconstructing leisure constraints and adventure experiences to negotiate continuing participation. Journal of Leisure Research, 34(2), 155-177 Martin, P., & PRIEST, S (1986) Understanding the adventure experience Journal of Adventure Education, 3(1), 18-21 Mcginnis, L. P, & Gentry, J W (2004) Examining the mediating relationship of “play” on ritual enduring involvement Advances in Consumer Research, 31, 405-411. McIntyre, N. (1992) Involvement in risk

recreation: A comparison of objective and subjective measures of engagement Journal of Leisure Research, 24(1), 64-71. McIntyre, N., & Pigram, J (1992) Recreation specialization reexamined: The case of vehicle-based campers Leisure Sciences, 14(1), 3-15 Oliveira, P. & Pereira, P T (2008) Who values what in a tourism destination? The case of Madeira Island Tourism Economic, 14(1), 155-168 Park, C. W, Gardner, M P, & Thukral, V K (1988) Self-perceived knowledge: Some effects on information processing for a choice task American Journal of Psychology, 101 (3), 401-424. Pidgeon, N., Kasperson, R, & Slovic, P (Eds) (2003) The social amplification of risk UK, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press Pomfret, G. (2006) Mountaineering adventure tourists: a conceptual framework for Research Tourism Management, 27, 113-123 Robinson, D. W (1992) A descriptive model of enduring risk recreation involvement Journal of Leisure Research, 24(1), 52-63 Rogers, E., & Schoemaker, F(1971)

Communication of innovations: A cross-cultural approach London, Collier Macmillan Schott, C. (2007) Selling adventure tourism: A distribution channels perspective International Journal of Tourism Research, 9, 257-274 Schuett, M. A (1991) Testing the adventure model for outdoor adventure recreation participation Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana- Champaign. Schuett, M. A (1993) Refining measures of adventure recreation involvement Leisure Sciences, 15(3), 205-216 Sibthorp, J., Paisley, K, & Gookin, J (2007) Exploring participant development through adventure-based programming: A model from the National Outdoor Leadership School. Leisure Sciences, 29, 1-18 Srinivasan, N., & Ratchford, B T (1991) An empirical test of a model of external search for automobiles Journal of Consumer Research, 18, 233-242. Swarbrooke, J., Beard, C, Leckie, S, & Pomfret, G (2003) Adventure tourism: The new frontier Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann Venkartaman, M. P

(1990) Opinion leadership, enduring involvement and characteristic of opinion leaders: A moderating or mediating relationship? In E. M GOLDBERG, G GERALD, & W P RICHARD (Eds), Advances in Consumer Research, 17, 60-67 Provo, UT: Association for Consumer Research. Weber, K. (2001) Outdoor adventure tourism: A review of research approaches Annals of Tourism Research, 28(2), 360-377 Willing, C. (2008) A phenomenological investigation of the experience of taking part in extreme sports Journal of Health Psychology, 13(5), 690-702. Zaichkowsky, J. L (1994) Research Notes: The Personal Involvement Inventory: Reduction, Revision, and Application to Advertising, Journal of Advertising, 23, 59-70. 74 The Journal of International Management Studies, Volume 7, Number 2, October, 2012