Biology | Waterworld » Fish parasites and fisheries productivity in relation to extreme flooding of Lake Baringo, Kenya

Source: http://www.doksinet i FISH PARASITES AND FISHERIES PRODUCTIVITY IN RELATION TO EXREME FLOODING OF LAKE BARINGO, KENYA SIGEI WILFRED KIPRONO, B. Ed (Sc) I56/28688/2013 A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE (APPLIED PARASITOLOGY) IN THE SCHOOL OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES OF KENYATTA UNIVERSITY AUGUST, 2017 Source: http://www.doksinet ii DECLARATION I hereby declare that this is my original work and has not been presented for the award of a degree or other awards in any other university Signature. Date Sigei Wilfred Kiprono Kenyatta University Department of Zoological Sciences SUPERVISORS The thesis was submitted with our full approval as university supervisors Signature. Date Prof. Michael Gicheru Kenyatta University Department of Zoological Sciences Signature.Date Dr. Joshua Mutiso Kenyatta University Department of Zoological Sciences Source: http://www.doksinet iii DEDICATION I dedicate

this work to my late father William Simotwo and all my family members for their support, encouragements and advice they gave me to start my master’s degree. Source: http://www.doksinet iv AKNOWLEDGEMENTS My heartfelt appreciation is to God for his merciful guidance. I am greatly indebted to my supervisors Dr. Joshua Mutiso and Prof Michael Gicheru for granting me the project and providing professional technical guidance for the success of my work. I dedicate my deepest appreciation to Regional Universities Forum for Capacity Building in Agriculture (RUFORUM) for granting me a scholarship and facilitation of my research project. I am also grateful to lecturers and technical staff of Department of Zoological sciences, Kenyatta University. My sincere gratitude to Mr Patrick Wambua one of the technicians, whose assistance in water analysis was highly invaluable. Special thanks to my colleagues Moses Orinda, Evans Kibet, Shaaban Chitumbua, my wife Joan and our daughter Nicole

Chepchumba for being source of inspiration. I am grateful to the Fisheries Department and Kampi Samaki Health Centre officials for facilitating my data collection process. Many anonymous fishermen and women were involved in the sampling effort, to which my sincere thanks are due. Special thanks to Newton Mutiso and his colleagues for their continuous support during my stay at Kampi Samaki which facilitated the smooth collection of data for this study. Source: http://www.doksinet v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION. ii DEDICATION. iii AKNOWLEDGEMENTS . iv TABLE OF CONTENTS .v LIST OF TABLES . ix LIST OF FIGURES .x ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS . xi ABSTRACT . xii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .1 1.1 Background information 1 1.2 Statement of Problem 2 1.3 Justification for the study 2 1.4 Research questions 3 1.5 Hypotheses 3 1.6 Objectives of the study3 1.61 General objective 3 1.62 Specific objectives 4 1.7 Significance of the study4 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .5 2.1 General fish

description 5 2.11 Jawless Fish 5 2.12 Cartilaginous fish 5 2.13 Bony fish 6 2.2 Fish parasites 6 2.21 Helminthes 8 2.211 Monogeneans 8 2.212 Digenians 9 2.213 Cestodes 10 2.214 Nematodes11 2.215 Acanthocephalans 12 Source: http://www.doksinet vi 2.22 Crustaceans 12 2.3 Diagnosis of fish parasites 13 2.31 Microscopic diagnosis 13 2.32 Histological diagnosis 13 2.33 Immunological diagnosis 14 2.34 Molecular diagnosis 14 2.4 Lake Baringo flooding 15 2.5 Water quality16 2.51 Water quality Parameters 17 2.511 Temperature 17 2.512 Turbidity 18 2.513 Dissolved oxygen 18 2.514 Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) 19 2.515 Conductivity19 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS .20 3.1 Study area20 3.2 Study design 22 3.3 Sample size estimation 22 3.4 Identification of parasites 23 3.5 Administration of questionnaires 24 3.6 Water quality assessment 24 3.7 Data analysis and presentation 25 3.8 Research Approval 25 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS .26 4.1 Stakeholders responses on fisheries production in

reference to L. Baringo Flooding26 4.11 Demographic characteristics of the respondents26 4.12 Stakeholders responses on income27 4.13 Stakeholder’s views on fishing related aspects and water level 29 4.14 Perceptions of the stake holders on fish, fish health and flooding in Lake Baringo .30 4.2 Physico-chemical properties of water 32 Source: http://www.doksinet vii 4.21 Water temperature 32 4.22 Water pH 34 4.23 Water Conductivity 34 4.24 Dissolved Oxygen Concentration 35 4.25 Water depth 36 4.26 Water Salinity 37 4.27 Water Nitrogen concentration 38 4.28 Water Phosphorus concentration 39 4.29 Turbidity 40 4.3 Retrospective data from ministry of fisheries on Lake Baringo fish species composition and landing (annual fisheries statistical bulletin, 2013).41 4.31 Species composition41 4.32 Fish landing by weight and value 42 4.4 Fish of economic importance 43 4.41 Length and weight of the fish 45 4.5 Fish parasites infestation 46 4.51 Prevalence of parasites in fish46 4.52 Type of

parasite and prevalence 47 4.53 Polyparasitism 48 4.54 Parasitic infections in Barbus intermedius (Barbel) 49 4.55 Parasitic infections in O niloticus (Tilapia) 50 4.56 Parasitic infections in Protopterus aethiopicus (Lung fish) 51 4.57 Parasites in Clarias gariepinus (Cat fish) 51 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.53 3 5.1 Discussion53 5.11 Effects of flooding on livelihoods and fisheries productivity 53 5.12 Physico-chemical condition of Lake Baringo 53 5.13 Economic important fish species in Lake Baringo 55 5.14 Prevalence of parasites 56 5.15 Lake Baringo flooding 57 5.2 Conclusions 58 Source: http://www.doksinet viii 5.3 Recommendations 59 REFERENCES .61 APPENDICES .66 Appendix I: Questionnaires .66 Appendix II: Physico-chemical analysis table .92 Appendix III: Research Authorization .93 Source: http://www.doksinet ix LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Background characteristics of the respondents26 Table 4.2: Description of fishing related aspects and

water level28 Table 4.3: Responses by stakeholders on selected attributes30 Table 4.4: Lake Baringo fish landing by weight and value41 Table 4.5: Fish species and sex44 Table 4.6: Length and weight of fish45 Table 4.7: Prevalence of parasitic infestation46 Table 4.8: Prevalence of various parasites47 Table 4.9: parasites co-infestations48 Table 4.10: Prevalence (P) and mean intensity (Mi) of infection by different Parasites in B. intermedius (n=100) from Lake Baringo49 Table 4.11: Prevalence (P) and mean intensity (Mi) of infection by different parasites in O.niloticus (n=100) from Lake Baringo50 Table 4.12: Prevalence (P) and mean intensity (Mi) of infection by different parasites in P.Aethiopicus (n=100) from Lake Baringo 51 Table 4.13: Prevalence (P) and mean intensity (Mi) of infection by different parasites in C. gariepinus (n=100) from Lake Baringo52 Source: http://www.doksinet x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Life cycle of dactylogyroid parasites with main risk factors

favouring their Transmission/pread.9 Figure 2.2: Life cycle of clinostomid and their transmission to humans10 Figure 2.3: Life cycle of contracecum species11 Figure 2.4: Western shore of Lake Baringo near the village of Kampi Samaki15 Figure 3.1: Map of Lake Baringo showing the location of the study area20 Figure 4.1: Reported average daily income of traders before, during and after Flooding.27 Figure 4.2: Mean water temperature for the period between May and September 201.32 Figure 4.3: Mean water pH for the period between May and September 201533 Figure 4.4: Water conductivity for the period between May and September 2015.34 Figure 4.5: Dissolved oxygen for the period between May and September 2015.35 Figure 4.6: Depth of the lake for the period between May and September 2015.36 Figure 4.7: Salinity for the period between May and September 2015.37 Figure 4.8: Trend in nitrogen for the period between May and September 2015.38 Figure 4.9: Trend in phosphorus for the period between May

and September 2015.39 Figure 4.10: Trend in Turbidity for the period between May and September 2015.40 Figure 4.11: Percentages catch by species composition in Lake Baringo in 201341 Figure 4.12: Barbus intrmedius and Orechromis niloticus collected from Lake Baringo.42 Figure 4.13: Labeo cylindricus collected from Lake Baringo43 Figure 4.14: Clarias gariepinus collected from Lake Baringo43 Figure 4.15: Protopterus aethiopicus collected from Lake Baringo44 Source: http://www.doksinet xi ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS AAS Atomic absorption spectroscopy ANOVA Analysis of variance BOD Biological oxygen Demand CIT Commonwealth Institute of Helminthology COD Chemical oxygen Demand DO Dissolved Oxygen FAO Food Aid Organization GCL Gas liquid Chromatography NDMA National Drought Management Authority Pb2+ Lead ions UNEP United Nation Environmental Program USAID United States Agency for International Development WHO World Health Organization WRMA Water Resources

Management Authority PH Potential for Hydrogen SE Standard Error Source: http://www.doksinet xii ABSTRACT Fish production is an important food contributor to the global and local economy. However, diseases including parasitic infections have been recognized as one of the limiting factors in the production of fish. The increase in fish parasites can be as a result of flooding. The flooding of Lake Baringo that occurred in November 2011 could have caused water pollution that may have brought in parasites that could have caused fish diseases. No recent research had been carried out to investigate if different economically important species of fish in Lake Baringo could be infested with parasites. The objective of this study was to determine prevalence of parasites in four economically important fish species from Lake Baringo namely; Oreochromis niloticus, Proteopterus aethiopicus, Clarias gariepinus, and Barbus intermidius and investigate the effects of flooding on fisheries

productivity. The study utilized a cross sectional approach and involved use of questionnaires targeting various stakeholders as well as direct observations and capturing of fish for assessment of fish parasites. Water samples were collected for analysis of water quality. Different sets of qualitative and quantitative data were entered into Microsoft Excel and one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Chisquare statistics were used for data analysis. Results indicated that there are five species of fish in Lake Baringo. A total of 400 fish specimen belonging to four economically important species were examined. Thirty four percent (34%) of fish were found to be infected with different parasites. Five species of parasites comprising 2912% trematodes, 12.36% crustacean, 412% acanthocephalans, 3791% nematodes and 16.48% cestodes were isolated The study demonstrlated that contracecum species from mesentery and pericardial cavity was most prevalent nematodes (24.8%) in C gariepinus followed

by 16.5% in B intermedius and 54% in O niloticus The variations in parasite infestations by fish species were statistically significant (χ2 =117.611; df = 3, P>0001) The results of physical parameters of water showed that temperature ranged from 24.9 o C to 26.2 oC while pH ranged from 89 to 913 No significant differences was observed in pH between the months measured from May to September 2015 (F = 0.86, P> 005) Conductivity ranged from 1.55 (mS/cm) to 170(mS/cm) and the values of dissolved Oxygen in the lake ranged between 6.03 mg L-1 and 66 mg L-1 Salinity values ranged from 0.6 to 08 mg/L while turbidity ranged from 400 to 950 NTU In conclusion, the study revealed different parasites in fresh water fish of Lake Baringo which constitutes a major threat to fish productivity. In addition, the water quality in Lake has abnormally high turbidity which may have increased because of high rates of sedimentation resulting from increased soil erosion in the catchment. It is

recommended that landed fish from Lake Baringo should be properly cooked to avoid ingestion of parasites by fish consumers. Furthermore, proper lake management system should be put in place to conserve this important ecosystem. Source: http://www.doksinet 1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background information The fisheries sector contributes immensely to the nutritional security and food to about 200 million Africans and it also generates income for over 10 million others engaged in fish production, processing and trade (Miller, 2011). However, fish parasites have enormous impact on fish given their negative impact on profitability and also cause of zoonotic diseases in many areas of the world (Murrell, 2007). In most parts of the world, fish production is mainly from the wild (Anyamba et al., 2001). However, as the world’s population grows, fish resources are being depleted at an increasing rate as a result of environmental degradation, over harvesting, water pollution and

diseases, thus fish production could no longer meet the demand of the stakeholders. Poor environmental conditions and pollution which often results in reduced immunity in fish and higher susceptibility to parasites and diseases are among the problems facing the fish sector (Hetch and Endermann, 2007). Fish is a good source of protein (FAO, 2009) and therefore very important for a larger number of Baringo residents living in the Lake Baringo Basin and other local markets such as Nakuru and Nairobi. Kenya has water resources (Indian Ocean, Lakes, rivers, swamps, ponds and other water bodies) with high potential for fish production (Barber, 2004). A consequence of flooding and water pollution may be an increase in fish parasites that may negatively affect fish populations. The objective of the present study was to investigate if fish in Lake Baringo were parasite infested and to assess the effect of this infestation on fisheries production following flooding in this ecosystem. Source:

http://www.doksinet 2 1.2 Statement of Problem Environmental change, whether occurring naturally or through human intervention, affects the ecological balance and contexts within which fish parasites breed, develop and cause disease (Jonathan et al., 2000) Parasites and disease conditions of fish are among the problems facing the fishery sector in the wild population. Parasitic diseases, if left uncontrolled can result in mass mortalities, reduce fish production and in some cases, can act as source of infections for human and other animals consuming infected fish. Increase in fish parasites may be as a result of many events including flooding. Specifically, the flooding of Lake Baringo could have caused water pollution that may have brought in parasites that could serve as cause of fish diseases and zoonotic infections. However, no study had been carried out to establish the current health status of fish or the water quality in Lake Baringo. This study therefore investigated the fish

parasites on different species of fish inhabiting Lake Baringo and assessed the effects of flooding of the Lake on water quality and fish productivity with emphasis on intervention strategies for improving food safety and security. 1.3 Justification for the study Fish is an important protein source and is consumed by almost every population in the world (Fao, 2009), hence the need for studies to ensure health fish production. The study of fish parasites is important because parasites have been shown to lower fish productivity, decrease fish health making them more susceptible to other diseases and even cause mortalities in fish. Fish parasites result in loss of economic returns and loss of fish as protein sources (Barber, 2004). Identification of parasites to the genus level is generally sufficient to implement an effective control or prophylactic strategy and is crucial in understanding the etiology of parasitic diseases and hence determines the Source: http://www.doksinet 3

choice of a potential control. Lake Baringo is an economically important resource for tourism, source of food, source of water and medium of transport (Odada et al., 2004) and hence the need for studies that will eventually lead to conservation of this ecosystem. Lake Baringo experienced excessive flooding in 2010 and 2011. The surrounding infrastructure including hotels, churches and health facilities were submerged causing massive pollution of the lake. Despite the importance of the lake to the local communities, the effect of flooding on fisheries productivity, fish parasites and water quality had not been studied hence the need for the current study. 1.4 Research questions i. What are the perception of the stake holders on the effects of Lake Baringo flooding on fisheries production and economies? ii. What is the prevalence and intensity of parasites in fish in Lake Baringo? iii. What is the water quality status in Lake Baringo? 1.5 Hypotheses i. Lake Baringo flooding has

no effect on fisheries production and economies. ii. Parasitic infestations do not differ in different species of fish inhabiting Lake Baringo. iii. There are no changes in status of water quality in Lake Baringo. 1.6 Objectives of the study 1.61 General objective To investigate fish parasites and determine the effects of extreme flooding of Lake Baringo on fisheries production. Source: http://www.doksinet 4 1.62 Specific objectives i. To assess the knowledge level of the stake holders on fisheries production and economies in relation to Lake Baringo flooding. ii. To determine the prevalence of parasites on different species of fish on Lake Baringo. iii. To determine the water quality status in Lake Baringo. 1.7 Significance of the study The information obtained from this study will be useful to the community, government and other stake holders in understanding the prevalence of different types of parasites in fish and the state of water quality in Lake Baringo. Fish is

an important form of food nutrition for the community around the lake; hence the study addresses an important area of food safety and security. Creating evidence-based disease control policies that are required to protect humans and animal health requires understanding the interaction between people and aquatic organisms with their environment and the transmission of diseases between them. This will be useful in addressing ecosystem balance in the Lake hence increasing its productivity. Source: http://www.doksinet 5 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Fish The term "fish" describes an animal with a backbone, with gills throughout life and has limbs in the shape of fins. Fish are important to people all over the world as a source of nutrition. In many countries, people depend on fishing to make a living (Fao, 2009) Most fish live in salty water and about 40% of all species are found in fresh water. They include: cat fish, carp, mud fish and barbel. Fish are subject to a

wide range of diseases and parasites (Yimer and Enyew, 2003). 2.11 Jawless Fish Jawless fish have no jaws, no scales, no paired fins and no bony skeleton and possess an oral sucker instead of a jaw (Berra, 2007). They are very flexible with smooth skin They are found in both fresh and salt water environments. They can either be a lambrey or hagfish. Hagfish has primitive eyespots whereas lambreys has well developed eyes (Orlov and Beamish, 2016). Jawless fish are found in both salty and fresh water environments 2.12 Cartilaginous fish Cartilaginous fish have a cartilaginous skeleton. However, their ancestors were the first fish to develop paired fins and were called bony animals. They dont have swim bladders and their skin is covered with placoid scales (dermal denticles) (Dawes et al., 2006) The spleen and special tissue around the gonads produces red blood cells because cartilaginous fish do not have bone marrow (Murrel, 2007). Source: http://www.doksinet 6 2.13 Bony fish Bony

fish include the ray finned fish and the lobe-finned fish . They are in the class of fleshy finned fishes including coelacanths and lung fish. (Berra, 2007) They have fleshy, lobed paired fins joined to the body by a single bone and the fins evolved into the legs of the first tetrapod land vertebrates and amphibians. They possess lepidotrichia or "fin rays and are called Ray finned. Their fins are webs of skin supported by bony or horny spines ("rays"). Chondrosteans, holosteans, and teleosts are three types of ray finned fishes (Dawes et al., 2006) Bony fish include devil fire fish, the empire snapper, the pineapple fish and garden eel. 2.2 Fish parasites Parasitism, according to Marcogliese (2001) reflects a life condition whereby one or more individual organisms derive nutritional benefits at the host’s expense, usually without killing the host. All parasites utilize energy otherwise available for the host’s growth, sustenance, development, establishment and

reproduction and as such may harm their host in a number of ways (Barber, 2004) and affects the hosts production (Marcogliese, 2002). A previous study reported that pathological effects due to parasites was worse in polluted waters than in clean waters, the pollutants acting as irritants stressed the fish and reduced their resistance to infection (Luoma and Rainbow, 2008). The infections increased the stress level and invariably weakened the immune system. There are other biotic and abiotic factors that affect parasite distribution in fish hosts. Biotic factors include host age, size, weight, maturity, sex and parasite life cycle while abiotic factors are temperature, season, oxygen, pH and depth of water among others (Pouder, 2005). Source: http://www.doksinet 7 It is difficult to isolate and quantify the effects of any single factor on parasitized fish population in the wild (Anyamba et al., 2001) However, studies of fish under culture or in captivity conditions have provided

much information about the effects of parasites on fish survival. Parasites can act as severe pathogens, causing direct mortality or rendering the fish more vulnerable to predators (Sures, 2008). Effects of parasite on fish include muscle degeneration, liver dysfunction, interference with nutrition, cardiac disruption, nervous system impairment, castration or mechanical interference with spawning, weight loss and gross distortion of the body. Other severe pathological disorders include inflammation and atrophy of the viscera, resulting from compression of organs by the parasites, often together with accumulation of blood stained ascetic fluid (Poulin, 2006). Parasitic infection are rampart in natural water bodies, affecting fish growth, development and reproduction. These diseases, in addition to other factors, cause steady decline in fishery resources (World book, 2001). Parasites are also incriminated in severe pathological disorders in the affected fish, resulting in their

economic and nutritive devaluation. Parasites can be divided into micro parasites and macro parasites on the basis of size. The micro parasites include viruses, bacteria, fungi, protozoans, microsporidians and mixozoans. Surveys for micro parasites in fish host, most often consider only protozoans (Marcogliese, 2005). Macro parasites are multicellular organisms mainly comprised of the helminths and arthropods. Furthermore, parasites can also be divided into ecto parasites and endo parasites on the basis of their location. Ecto parasites are those found on the external surface such as the skin or gills while endoparasites are those housed within internal organs or cavities of a host (Marcogliese, 2002). Water pollution directly interferes with fish health and thus it can change the pattern and distribution of parasite in Source: http://www.doksinet 8 the water hence parasite infection in fish. Investigation of pollution effect on parasitic communities in aquatic environment is

scarce and seldom in Kenya (Orina et al., 2014) But recently increasing interest has been observed among scientists in this field for their awareness about environmental pollution and its negative impact on world biotic fauna (Arle, 2002). 2.21 Helminthes Helminthic parasites in several African countries have been widely reported in fresh water fish (Hunter, 2003). The larvae usually affect the marketability of commercially produced fish, thus raising a lot of public health concerns, especially in an area where raw or smoked fish are eaten (Yanong, 2006). Humans can accidentally be infected with larval stages of nematodes, leadings to a severe disease known as Anisakidosis (Murrell, 2007), a zoonotic infection characterized by stomach pains, fever, diarrhea and vomiting. Although helminth infection are asymptomatic and tolerated by the host, sub-clinical infections have been associated with significant loss of condition in infected host. Clinical signs of infection depend on the site

and length of time of infection. Both larval and adult nematodes migrate, lodge or encyst within tissues causing inflammation, obstruction, oedema, lesions, anemia and granuloma. Several helminthic parasites have been reported in freshwater fish. These include: Monogeneans, Digeneans, Nematodes and Acanthocephalans (Marcogliese, 2005). 2.211 Monogeneans Monogeneans are ectoparasites which are small flattened attached to the host fins skin or gills by Opithaptor. Among monogenean dactylogyroids, the genus Enterogyrus, endoparasitic in the stomach and Cichlidogyrus, infecting the gills are host specific to Source: http://www.doksinet 9 diverse cichlid fish species from Africa (Okaeme et al., 1998) In many fish hatcheries in Africa, Monogeneans have caused severe mortalities in many fish species (Morsy, 2015). Heavy infestations of monogenians have led to productive losses; tissue damages and in some cases mortality (Buchmann, 2009). Dactylogyroid parasites are present in both farmed

and wild fish and are easily explained on the basis of life cycle pattern (Figure 2.1) Poor water environment without proper air circulation and short water column depth represents risk factors favouring the spread of infection. Figure 2:1: Dactylogyroid parasites life cycle with main risk factors favouring their spread 2.212 Digenians Digenians are Platyhelminthes with variable morphology and indirect life cycle. Infections in fish are mainly due to larval stages. Clinostomid and strigeoids are among the most abundant digenians. Their life cycle (Figure 22) involves a gastropod as Source: http://www.doksinet 10 invertebrate first intermediate host and many fish species as second intermediate hosts (Laimgruber et al., 2005) Trematodes eggs hatch to release free-swimming miracidia which actively infect snails and multiply in sac-like sporocyst to produce numerous rediae. These stages mature to cercariae which are released from the snails and either actively infect new definitive

host or form encysted metacercariae (Dias et al., 2003) Figure 2.2: Digeneans parasite life cycle 2.213 Cestodes Cestodes are endoparasites which require at least one intermediate host in their life cycle and one definitive host to complete their life cycle (Buchmann., 2009) Adults in intestine and plecercoid larvae in the viscera are two stages found in fish, when fish is the definitive host. Aquatic crustaceans normally harbour the plecercoid larvae (Morsy, 2015). Source: http://www.doksinet 11 Diphyllobothriasis is a serious fish-borne zoonosis that can be transmitted to humans. In native African fish, a variety of tapeworms notably unsegmented forms and the segmented pseudophyllideans and Proteocephalidae have been identified. Tapeworms are widespread in Africa but there are only few records of tapeworms from different tilapia species. Adult cestodes infection are benign due to the fact that they are not invasive, but the larval stages penetrate the tissues before encysting

causing obstruction, fibriosis and sometimes the eggs can lodge in tissues causing hypertension and granulomatous reactions (Scholz et al., 2004) 2.214 Nematodes Nematodes infect different species of both farmed and wild fish. When nematodes numbers is high, they cause illness or even death. Some nematodes can be transmitted directly from fish to fish. Their lifecycle patterns is normally indirect, with at least one intermediate hosts, although some can be transmitted directly from one fish to another (Sures, 2008) (Figure 2.3) Figure 2.3: Life cycle of contracecum species Source: http://www.doksinet 12 In large fish, multiple infestation of the body organs results in extensive fibrosis, inflammation and even some visceral adhesions are seen but there is no large impact on their body condition (Murrel, 2007). Despite localization, worms inhabiting the pericardial cavity do not induce any visible damage. Large (200-350 g) tilapia with a length of 6 cm and 2-3 mm in diameter may

have up to 12 worms (Yanong, 2006). 2.215 Acanthocephalans Acanhocephalans are helminthes belonging to a separate distinct Phylum Acanthocephalan with three classes divided into about 1200 species and all are intestinal parasites of vertebrates. Fish, amphibians, birds and mammals are their major hosts (Justine, 2010). They are cylindrical in shape provided with an eversible hooked proboscis with the anterior part, with no digestive system (absorb nutrients using the whole surface of the body). (World Book, 2001) They attach to the intestine of fish using the proboscis which lead to mucosal tissue damage at the site of attachment, resulting in fibroplasia which may extend into muscularis. Absorptive efficiency of the fish is certainly reduced once the intestinal villi is destroyed (Barber, 2004). 2.22 Crustaceans Crustaceans are group of arthropods, majority are aquatic organism, living in both freshwater and marine water environments. A few are in terrestrial environments

(Eisenbart, 2009). Branchiura, Copepoda and Isopoda are three major divisions considered in fish parasitology, the latter is found mainly in marine environment. Class Copepoda comprising the majority of the species, shows different adaptations to various habitats and to the parasitic life; some are commensals, while others are epizoic organisms to proper parasites. Source: http://www.doksinet 13 2.3 Diagnosis of fish parasites Several types of diagnosis are normally utilized in fish parasites classifications. These include: Microscopic diagnosis, Microbiological diagnosis, Immunological, Histological diagnosis and Molecular diagnosis (Eissa et al., 2013) 2.31 Microscopic diagnosis Microscopy is the most basic of tools in fish disease diagnosis. Accuracy of microscopy depends on the experience of the microscopist and the quality of equipment and can be done quickly (Bruno et al., 2006) Helminth eggs, larvae and also motile parasites stages can be detected with stains that color

pathogens, causing them to stand out from the background, although wet mounts of unstained samples can be used to detect. In disease diagnosis, the light microscope is the most commonly used microscope. Scrapings from the fish can be prepared for the examinations. Histological slides and stained microorganisms can also be interpreted using light microscope. 2.32 Histological diagnosis The symptoms of the infected fishes are apparently not so visible from the external feature or free-living movement of fish. The examination begins with external observation of any fish suspected of having a disease (Khan, 2009). Pathogens obtain food by breaking down body tissues or by absorbing digested food from the intestines. In the gills, hyperplasia takes place between the gill lamellae. The parasites feed on the newly produced cells and damage gill (Bassey, 2011). Usually in histopathology, the tissue sections are used to test damaged sections. However, the tissue is fixed for subsequent test.

Hematological investigations have been ever increasing in importance in practical fish pathology. Usually, any hematological study is based upon the examination Source: http://www.doksinet 14 of smear, although hemoglobin and total protein estimations, serum electrophoresis and other biochemical determinations are also carried out. In tissue sections of fish, immunohistochemical methods are also used to detect specific pathogens (Pouder, 2005). 2.33 Immunological diagnosis A variety of antibody-based tests and molecular test have been developed to detect mainly bacterial and parasitic agents in fish. Antigen-Antibody reactions are highly specific and sensitive. This forms the basis of immunodiagnostics (Buchman, 2009) Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is one of the immunological techniques that has been used for detection of fish nematodes especially those that are zoonotic when consumed (Madhavan et al., 2013) Quantitative estimation of the pathogens and/or the protective

antibody uses immunological diagnostic tools. This test is sensitive relatively rapid and more specific. Monoclonal antibody-based technique has been developed to increase the accuracy of detection and has allowed studying the pathogenesis of fish diseases. Major antigens are not conserved among life stages of certain pathogens hence, the specificity of antibodies also limits their usefulness. 2.34 Molecular diagnosis Molecular diagnostic techniques have been used to detect parasites from asymptomatic fish so disease outbreak could be prevented. Amplification of a specific region of DNA is defined by a set of two “primers” at which DNA synthesis is initiated by a thermostable DNA polymerase (Buller, 2004). Detection and quantification of Ichthyobodo sp, an ectoparasite affecting fish worldwide has utilized PCR (Dawes et al., 2006) Real time PCR has been designed targeting small sub units and rDNA for the detection of Ichyobodo spp. Source: http://www.doksinet 15 2.4 Lake

Baringo flooding Flooding of Lake Baringo is not a new phenomenon. The lake has had a history of flooding and water level changes since 1860. The water level has been rising in a climatic pattern of 50 years even without rains and tectonic forces are believed to be the reason behind the changes in lake levels in Rift valley lakes (Wahlberg et al., 2003) The lake productivity has detoriated over time owing to arthropological activities in the catchment. The lake fishery has reduced and its ecosystem has degraded over time (Figure 2.4) Figure 2:4: Western shore of Lake Baringo near the village Kampi ya Samaki. Ilchamus, Pokots and Tugens are three indigenous communities that live in the basin and they earn their living through pastoralism and agro-pastoralism in which they keep large numbers of cattle, which overgraze the catchment vegetation leading to enhanced soil erosion, sedimentation in streams and lakes and frequent flash floods. Deforestation and conventional agricultural

practices are other activities causing degradation. Continous increase in sedimentation may also negatively affect the lake production. This has resulted in loss of biodiversity and decline in fisheries drawing the attention of the Government, Nongovernmental organization (NGOS) and other stakeholders of the need Source: http://www.doksinet 16 to carry out management interventions with the aim of minimizing further degradation of the lake. The increased flooding- related diseases may threaten the health of local population and by extension threatening their participation in socio-economic activities that support livelihoods and enhance resilience capacity (NDMA, 2013). Earlier reports have associated lakes’ region flooding with loss of fish, livestock and destruction of food crops (USAID, 2006). This may have negative impacts on livestock and fisheries productivity as focus shift on addressing medical needs for ailing poor population. 2.5 Water quality The Lake ecosystems have

been impacted negatively in the last half of the 20th century due to remarkable variations in climatic patterns (Ngaira, 2006). Lake Baringo, which initially supported a substantial fishery and also represented a precious source of freshwater in a semiarid area has fundamentally changed in recent years; its ecosystem has undergone degradation and the fishery sector is slowly going down (Wahlberg’s et al., 2003) The lake deterioration is thought to be related to lakes flooding and pollutants from rivers that discharged water into the lake. Erosion in the catchment has deposited a lot of volcanic soil and this is believed to be the reason behind high turbidity in the lake (Onyando et al., 2005) Light penetration and turbidity has been greatly affected indirectly by turbidity lowering the productivity of the Lake (Omondi et al., 2011) Lake Baringo receives its water from rivers like Perkerra, Molo and Tangulbei. The areas around the lake experience flooding during heavy rains. The

floods normally disrupt livelihoods and the lake becomes contaminated by flooded latrines, faecal matter and other pollutants washed in by surface run-off. Overgrazing in the surrounding lowlands and logging in the highlands are causing severe soil erosion and during rainy season, it Source: http://www.doksinet 17 floods the bare land, tearing rich top soils away and leaving gullies behind. Chronic exposure of pollutants to fish over a period of time causes biochemical, physiological and behavioural changes that can ultimately influence prevalence and intensity of parasitism. Large freshwater Lakes in the world and lakes in the tropics, continues to receive increasing loads of pollutants (Jason et al., 2002) attributed to various human activities within its drainage basin. Inadequate environmental or enforcement contributes to this problem. At the same time, the Lake still represents an essential source of nutrition for millions of in-lake organisms. 2.51 Water quality Para meters

2.511 Temperature Many aquatic organisms, especially fish, are sensitive to temperature changes in the lake water (Ngaira, 2006). Each species of fish has an optimum or preferred water temperature. Fresh water fish tolerates a temperature of 20oC and 30oC Fish can sense very small changes in temperature, and when temperature exceeds their optimum, they are forced to move elsewhere in the stream. If the water temperature shifts too far from the optimum, the fish suffers. Some fish are more tolerant of changes in temperature, since they can survive in greater range of temperature. The varied acceptance levels of different fish results in competition between fish that are more tolerant, as they are often more abundant in areas with harsher temperatures. Water temperature varies daily, seasonally and annually. Water temperature does not change as fast as air temperature, but because of this, smaller increases in water temperature can have more of a negative impact on the water quality and

ecosystems that depend on water (Arle, 2002). Source: http://www.doksinet 18 2.512 Turbidity Turbidity in water is a measure of the clarity that is affected by the presence of solids, small particles, sediments, or pollutants. The more sediment in the water, the more turbid the water is; so our drinking water is low in turbidity compared to water in great lakes. Materials that are suspended in water allow less light to pass through the water, and so this increases the temperature of water because suspended particles hold more heat (Omondi et al., 2011) As such, suspended particles can clog fish gills, which results in reduced resistance to disease, decreased growth rates, and affects egg and fish larval development (Wahlberg et al., 2003) As particles settle, they can blanket the stream bottom and smother fish eggs and aquatic insects. Sources of increased turbidity include soil erosion, waste water discharge, urban runoff, eroding stream, banks and excessive algal growth. 2.513

Dissolved oxygen Dissolved oxygen is a measure of the amount of oxygen dissolved in the water. Aquatic insects and fish that live in streams need sufficient dissolved oxygen to survive and thrive. Stream water gain oxygen from the atmosphere and from plants as a result of photosynthesis (Oduor, 2000). The amount of dissolved oxygen in the river can be affected by a range of factors and processes going on in the river. If more oxygen is consumed than is added or produced, dissolved oxygen levels decline and some sensitive aquatic animals may move away, weaken or die. Dissolved oxygen levels fluctuate seasonally and over a 24-hour period. A dissolved oxygen concentration of 4-7mg/L is good for many aquatic animals. Aquatic organism exposed to low dissolved oxygen concentrations may be more susceptible to adverse effects of other stressors such as disease and toxic substances (Omondi et al., 2011) Source: http://www.doksinet 19 2.514 Hydrogen ion concentration (pH) The pH level is a

measurement of the acidity or alkalinity of water. Level of pH can indicate chemical changes in water, and the biological availability of nutrients in water. The pH scales ranges from 0 to 14. A safe level of pH of water ranges between 65 and 8.5 units pH levels higher than 85 become highly basic, while pH below 65 become highly acidic for water quality. Largest varieties of fresh water aquatic organisms prefer a pH range between 6.5 to 80 The pH values in the stream water change due to human activities or due to submerged plants and animals (Oduor, 2000). The affluent discharges that come from industry, storm water and waste water treatment plants and quarries may have higher or lower pH values that in turn change the pH of the stream water. High acidity or alkalinity deteriorates water quality for both aquatic and recreational purposes and may cause irritation or damage to skin or eyes. Prolonged exposure of aquatic species to higher or lower pH may sometimes have fatal consequences.

2.515 Conductivity This is a measure of the capability of a solution such as water in a stream to conduct an electric current. This is an indicator of the concentration of dissolved electrolyte ions in water. It does not identify the specific ions in the water Fresh water streams ideally should have conductivity between 150 to 500 Us/cm to support diverse aquatic life. However, significant increase in conductivity may be an indicator that polluting discharges have entered the water (Jason et al., 2002) Source: http://www.doksinet 20 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Study area The study was conducted in Lake Baringo which is in the semi-arid range land in Marigat Division in Baringo County. It is one the Great Rift Valley Lakes in Kenya which is fresh water. It is located between latitude 0° 30´ N and 0º 45´ N and longitude 36º 00´ E and 36º 10´ E and lies approximately 60 km north of the equator at an altitude of 975 m above sea level (Kallquist, 1987). The lake

has a catchment of 6,820 km2 and surface area of approximately 130 km2. It has an average depth of 5 m with the deepest of about 7 m at high levels of water. Several rivers drain into the Lake including Molo, Perkerra’ Ol rabel, Makutano, Endau and Chemoren (Figure 3.1) Source: http://www.doksinet 21 Figure 3.1: Lake Baringo Map showing location of study area Source: http://www.doksinet 22 3.2 Study design The study utilized a cross sectional approach and involved use of questionnaires targeting various stake holders as well as direct observations and capturing of fish for assessment of fish parasites. Focus group discussion (FGD) was held with key informants to collect information on effects of flooding on fisheries production. Water samples were collected for analysis of water quality and comparison were made with the past records. 3.3 Sample size estimation The fish sample size required in this study was calculated according to the following formula by Sapoka et al.

(2006); n=Z2 P (1-P) ℮2 n= The desired sample size for population ≤ 10,000 Z= The standard deviation = 1.96 P = The proportion of the target population estimated to have a characteristics of 0.05 ℮= is the level of precision taken as a percentage usually at 5% n=Z2 P (1-P) /℮2 n=1.962 005(1-005) 0052 = 38416 A total of 385 fish were sampled. Source: http://www.doksinet 23 3.4 Identification of parasites Fish were collected early in the morning and kept in polythene bags filled with oxygenated water. All collected fish specimens were examined within a day while still in the field. The sizes of the fish were determined Records of the total length (cm) were taken using tape measure for each fish. All sampling procedures followed that of Marcogliese (2001). Fish were examined externally and internally, keeping them wet throughout the procedure. Before dissection, an external examination was carried out Mucus sample was taken from the body surface, especially from pectoral and

ventral fins, and a direct smear was made on a slide and examined using compound microscope at 100× and 400× magnification. External parasites found on skin, fin, opercula and gill were identified. Skin, fins, opercula and gills were examined for parasites in a petri dish containing water, and using a stereomicroscope. Gill rakers were forced apart by a needle and inspected for parasites. The eye balls were taken out using scissors and forceps, then crushed and examined under microscope for parasites. The abdominal wall was opened up to the mouth along the ventral midline by inserting a sharp end of scissors through the anus. Another incision was made from the anus up to the lateral line and further along the lateral line up to the gill cover. The detached part of the abdominal wall was removed and the internal organs exposed. Fish body cavity, pericardial cavity, heart, and mesentery were examined for parasites that were identified using naked eye, a stereomicroscope and a compound

microscope. The intestine taken out, separated from adipose tissue, dissected, and a portion placed in petri dish containing 0.75% saline solution for examination Sliced portions of liver and kidney were visually examined and put on slide for further microscopic examination. The skin was removed and the exposed muscle was then examined with naked eye. The brain Source: http://www.doksinet 24 of Clarias gariepinus was dissected longitudinally and the cranial cavity washed away into petri dish using water dropper and checked for parasites especially Diplostomum spp. metacercariae. All parasites collected were fixed and preserved in 70% ethanol as described by (Marcogliese, 2001). Identification of most parasites was made immediately following standard keys in literature (Paperna, 1996; Roberts, 2001; Klinger and Francisfloyd, 2002; Roy, 2002; Amlacher, 2005; Pouder et al., 2005) Prevalence was calculated as the number of parasites of a given taxonomic group per total number of hosts

examined. Mean intensity (Mi) was calculated as the number of parasites of a given taxonomic group per number of infected hosts. 3.5 Administration of questionnaires A questionnaire was designed, pretested and administered to 120 randomly selected fish dealers in Kampi ya Samaki based on the formula by Dr. Zubair (nf=n/i+(n)/(N) when the target population is less than 10,000. The target groups were fishermen, fish traders, Hotel administrators, fisheries officers and other stake holders like the local people. Each group was asked questions regarding fish parasites and the effects of Lake Baringo flooding on fisheries production. The responses were used to evaluate the effects of flooding on fish productivity. Focus group discussion was also held with key informants 3.6 Water quality assessment Ordinary thermometer was used to measure water temperature. Twenty centimeters diameter secchi disc was used to measure Transparency. This was done by dipping secchi disc into the water and

noting the points of disappearance and re-appearance (Wetzel, 1983). Long straight pole and a tape were used to measure Maximum depth of the Lake Source: http://www.doksinet 25 A calibrated conductivity/TDS portable PH/ probe meter (model PCT: 40) was used to measure the pH, conductivity and total dissolved solutes (TDS). 3.7 Data analysis and presentation Data from questionnaires was entered into Microsoft Excel. The response from questionnaires was ranked as percentage. Parasite distribution was described using proportions. Chi-square and analysis of variance were used for data analysis with spss statistical software. Physico-chemical parameters of water were expressed as means ±standard error (SE) for each sampling site. Data were presented in Tables, Graphs and Texts. A P value of < 005 at 95% interval was considered significant 3.8 Research Approval Kenyatta university Graduate school approved this study. Permit was also given by the National Commission for Science,

Technology and Innovation (NACOSTI). Source: http://www.doksinet 26 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 4.1 Stakeholders responses on fisheries production in reference to L Baringo Flooding 4.11 Demographic characteristics of the respondents The present study sought information from various groups of people involved in fishing activities in Lake Baringo. These were: Fishermen (40), Fish traders (30), Hotel management (20), Boat owners (10) and stake holders which included fisheries department personnel (10) and local administrators (10). Their age ranged from 26 to 47 years with a mean age of 35.9±68 years Of the interviewed participants 55 (4583%) were males while 65 (54.17%) were females Twenty respondents (1666%) had been involved with fish from Lake Baringo for 1-3 years and 30 (25%) had been involved with fish related activities for 3-5 years while 70 (58.34%) had been involved in handling fish for more than 5 years (Table 4.1) Source: http://www.doksinet 27 Table 4.1: Background

characteristics of respondents Characteristics Frequency(n=120) % ≤35 >35 Gender 50 70 31.66 68.34 Male 55 45.83 Female 65 54.17 Fishery administrators 10 8.5 Fishermen 40 33.33 Traders 30 25 Boat operators 10 8.5 Local administration 10 8.5 Hotel Management 20 16.67 3-5 yrs 30 25.0 More than 5 yrs 90 75 Age category Position in the society Duration of working 4.12 Stakeholders responses on income All the stakeholders responded in the affirmative on enquiring if they had experienced any difference in their earnings before, during and after flooding of L. Baringo The range of price for Orechromis niloticus was between KSh 30 and KSh 50 while P. aethiopicus prices were between KSh 300 and KSh 1000 per kg. Barbus intermedius and Clarias gariepinus prices ranged from KSh 30 to KSh 80 and KSh 200 to KSh 500 respectively. Traders marketed their fish in various towns including Marigat, Nakuru, Kabarnet and Nairobi. The average daily earnings before

flooding were in the range of KSh 100-300, KSh. 600-800 and KSh 1000 or more for 8 (421%), 4 (211%) and 7 (368%) traders Source: http://www.doksinet 28 respectively. Asked about their income during the floods, 7 (368%), 1 (53%) and 11 (57.9%) mentioned that their incomes were KSh 100-300, KSh 300-600 and KSh 600800 respectively For the period following floods the reported average daily earnings among the study participants were in the range of KSh. 300-600 and KSh 600-800 for two (10.5%) and seventeen (895%) respondents respectively (Figure 41) Figure 4.1: Reported average daily incomes of participants before, during and after flooding of Lake Baringo Source: http://www.doksinet 29 4.13 Stakeholder’s views on fishing related aspects and water level Out of the 30 fishermen who were involved in fishing activities, 53.3% had been engaged for a period of two to three years while 10 % had more than four years of engagement in fishing. The purpose of taking part in fishing was

either commercial (8, 267%) or both commercial and home consumption (22, 73.3%) (Table 42) Table 4.2: Description of fishing related aspects and water level Attribute Frequency (n=30) % 2 to 3 years 16 53.3 3 to 4 years 4 13.3 >4 years 10 33.3 Commercial 8 26.7 Both commercial & home consumption 22 73.3 Eldoret,Nairobi, Nakuru 2 6.7 Marigat,Koibatek,Nakuru,Nairobi 26 86.7 Nakuru, kabarnet,Nairobi,Marigat 2 6.7 Hook 6 20 Canoe 22 73.3 Boat 2 6.7 Years of fishing Purpose of fishing Market for the fish Method of fishing Source: http://www.doksinet 30 4.14 Perceptions of the stake holders on fish, fish health and flooding in Lake Baringo Asked about the type of fish that the customers liked most, most respondents said tilapia and mud fish (35%). Further, the respondents reported that they regularly encountered fish parasites during their work. To counter this occurrence, the respondents ensured that fish were cooked (smoked or fried) before

being served to customers. The study participants reported that hotels had been submerged following floods in L. Baringo and roads were also destroyed. They also reported destruction of facilities including buildings, flower gardens and swimming pools, petrol stations and reptile museum among other structures (Table 4.3) Source: http://www.doksinet 31 Table 4.3: Responses by stakeholders on selected fishing attributes Characteristic Frequency (n=20) % Barbus Tilapia 5 25 Mud fish 3 15 Tilapia 2 10 Tilapia, Cat fish 6 30 Tilapia, Mud fish 7 35 Tilapia ,Mud fish and Barbus 1 5 Tilapia,Mud fish and Cat fish 2 10 Smoking, Deep frying 16 80 Smoking, proper cooking 1 5 17 85 17 85 Buildings Flower gardens swimming pools 16 80 Toilets Flower gardens swimming pools 15 75 Fish species that your customers like most Parasites Prevention methods to man Change Observed in water level or flooding 2012-2014 Properties destroyed by floods many hotels

submerged and roads destroyed Properties in the premises destroyed by floods Source: http://www.doksinet 32 4.2 Physico-chemical properties of water The outputs following analysis of selected physico-chemical properties of water including conductivity, pH, dissolved oxygen, salinity, nitrogen concentration and phosphorus concentration are summarised in appendix II. 4.21 Water temperature Spatial water temperatures in the lake ranged from 24.9oC in July to 262oC in May year 2015 with a mean temperature of 25.2oC There was significant difference in the mean temperature between months (F= 160.26, p< 005) May had the highest temperature (26.2oC) while July had the lowest (242oC) (Figure 42) Source: http://www.doksinet 33 Figure 4.2: Mean water temperature for the period between May and September 2015 Source: http://www.doksinet 34 4.22 Water pH Level of pH ranged from 8.9 to 913 There was no significant differences observed between the month. There was significant

difference in the water pH between months (F= 1.970; p< 015) (Figure 43) Figure 4.3: Water PH for the period between May and September 2015 4.23 Water Conductivity Conductivity ranged from a minimum average of 1.55 uS/cm in the month of May to maximum average of 1.70uS/cm in the month of September, 2015 There were statistically significant variations in the conductivity of water between the months Source: http://www.doksinet 35 constituting the study period (F=6.000, p=0004) Water conductivity was highest in the month of September and lowest in May (Figure 4.4) Figure 4.4: Water conductivity for the period between May and September 2015 4.24 Dissolved Oxygen Concentration Values of dissolved Oxygen in the lake Baringo ranged between 6.03 mg L-1 and 66 mg L-1. Between the sampling months, there was significant differences in the mean dissolved oxygen concentrations (F =1.83; P< 0174) Dissolved oxygen concentrations was high in the month of June and September recorded the

lowest concentration (Figure 4.5) Source: http://www.doksinet 36 Figure 4.5: Dissolved oxygen in lake water for the period between May and September 2015 4.25 Water depth The depth of the lake water ranged from 5.2 metres in August to 57 metres in the month of May 2015. However, the mean depths of the lakes were not significantly different for the various months studied (F= 1.345; p= 0299) (Figure 46) Source: http://www.doksinet 37 Figure 4.6: Depth of the lake for the period between May and September 2015 4.26 Water Salinity Salinity values ranged from 0.6 to 08 mg/L There was no significant difference in salinity in the lake in almost all the months of the study (F= 2.57; p< 084) (Figure 47) Source: http://www.doksinet 38 Figure 4.7: Salinity of the lake for the period between May and September 2015 4.27 Water Nitrogen concentration The mean levels of nitrogen were highest in May (1.5 mg/L) and lowest inSimilarly, mean nitrogen levels were significantly different

across the five months studied (F=0.318; p=0.861) (Figure 48) Source: http://www.doksinet 39 Figure 4.8: Trends in nitrogen of the lake for the period between May and September 2015 4.28 Water Phosphorus concentration Phosphorus values in the lake ranged between 0.95 to 109 mg/L mean phosphorus concentrations had significant difference in the between the sampling months (F= 0.318; p< 0.861) (Figure 49) Source: http://www.doksinet 40 Figure 4.9: Trends in phosphorus of the lake for the period between May and September 2015 4.29 Turbidity Turbidity values in the lake ranged from 470 to 912 Nephelometric Turbidity Units (NTU). Mean turbidity had significant differences between sampling months (F=4512; P < 0.05) The lowest turbidity was recorded in May while August recorded the highest (Figure 4.10) Source: http://www.doksinet 41 Figure 4.10: Trends in turbidity of the lake for the period between May and September 2015 4.3 Retrospective data from ministry of fisheries

on Lake Baringo fish species composition and landing (Annual Fisheries Statistical Bulletin, 2013) 4.31 Species composition From the ministry report, the fishery of Lake Baringo is based on four species including Oreochromis niloticus (Tilapia), Barbus intermedius, Clarias gariepinus and Protopterus aethiopicus which were introduced in the lake in 1975. The fishery was previously based on the tilapiine species; however, owing to changes in the lakes biophysical processes such as siltation and species introductions, the fishery is currently dominated by Protopterus aethiopicus. The species catch composition in the present study was dominated by Protopterus aethiopicus having contributed 72% (190 metric tons) followed by Tilapia spp 17% (44 metric tons), Clarias spp 10% (26 metric tonnes) and Barbus spp with 1% (3 metric tonnes) ( Figure 4.11) Source: http://www.doksinet 42 Figure 4.11: Percentages catch by species composition in Lake Baringo in 2013 4.32 Fish landing by weight and

value From the fisheries report, Lake Baringo commercial fishery has drastically changed from 191 Metric tons in 2009 with an estimated ex- vessel value of kshs. 9,757000 to 263 Metric tons valued at Kshs. 24,54400 in 2013 (Table 44) Table 4.4: Lake Baringo fish landing by weight and value Year Amount (M. tons) Price × 1000 kshs 2009 191 9757 2010 53 2707 2011 158 13,524 2012 251 23,524 2013 262 24,5447 Total 915 74,056 Source: http://www.doksinet 43 4.4 Fish of economic importance Five species of fish were identified and these included; Oreochromis niloticus (Tilapia) (Figure 4.12), Barbus intermedius (Figure 413), Clarias gariepinus, Labeo cylindricus (Figure 4.14) and Protopterus aethiopicus (Marbled lung fish) (Figure 415) Two hundred and eleven (52.75%) and 189 (4725%) fish species studied were male and female respectively (Table 4.5) Figure 4.12: Barbus intrmedius and Orechromis niloticus collected from Lake Baringo (Photos by Wilfred sigei) Figure

4.13: Labeo cylindricus collected from Lake Baringo (Photos by Wilfred sigei) Source: http://www.doksinet 44 Figure 4.14: Clarias gariepinus collected from Lake Baringo (Photos by Wilfred sigei) Figure 4.15: Protopterus aethiopicus collected from Lake Baringo (Photos by Wilfred Sigei) Source: http://www.doksinet 45 Table 4.5: Fish species and sex Species Sex Male Female Count % Count % Orechromis niloticus 57 57.0 43 43.0 Clarias gariepinus 56 56.0 44 44.0 Barbus intermedius 52 52.0 48 48.0 Protopterus aethiopicus 46 46.0 54 54.0 Total 211 52.75 189 47.25 4.41 Length and weight of the fish The mean length and weight of the sampled fish were 30.5±87 centimeters and 128.0±253 grams respectively Protopterus aethiopicus had the longest overall mean length (49.4±61 cm) with the range being 370 to 610 cm On the other hand, Orechromis niloticus were the shortest with mean (±sd) length of 10.4 ±13 cm with the maximum and minimum length of the

sampled Orechromis niloticus being 7.0 and 130 cm respectively. Analysis of samples by weight revealed that Orechromis niloticus had the lowest mean weight (range: 220.0 to 3200 grams) while the sample comprising of mudfish had the highest mean weight (range: 3.0 to 100 kg) (Table 46) Source: http://www.doksinet 46 Table 4.6: Length and weight of fish Fish species Length(cm) Weight(g) Mean±SD Max Mean±SD Min Max Min Orechromis 10.4 ±13 7.0 13.0 234.5±115 210.0 260.0 47.2±83 30.0 65.0 2500±0.7 1200 3900 14.9±21 11.0 19.0 268.7±297 220.0 320.0 49.4±61 37.0 61.0 6500±1.9 3000 10000.0 30.5±87 7.0 65.0 2751.0±253 1200 320.0 niloticus Clarias gariepinus Barbus intermedius Protopterus aethiopicus Total SD= Standard deviation 4.5 Fish parasites infestation 4.51 Prevalence of parasites in fish A total of 139 of the 400 fish (34.8%) examined were found infested by at least one parasite.The highest level of parasite infestation was reported

in Clarias gariepinus (78.0%), followed by Oreochromis niloticus (280%) and Barbus intermedius (230%) The least proportion of parasite infestation was recorded in Protopterus aethiopicus (10.0%) The variations in parasite infestations by fish species were statistically significant (χ2 =117.611; df = 3, P>0001) (Table 47) Source: http://www.doksinet 47 Table 4.7: Prevalence of parasitic infestation Fish Species Fish infested % Fish not % infested Orechromis niloticus 28 28.0 72 72.0 Clarias gariepinus 78 78.0 22 22.0 Barbus intermedius 23 23.0 77 77.0 Protopterus aethiopicus 10 90.0 90 90.0 139 34.75 261 65.25 Total 4.52 Type of parasite and prevalence Out of the four hundred fishes examined, 106 (26.5%) were infested with Trematodes, 138 (34.5%) were infested with nematodes 60 (15%) with cestodes, 45 (1125%) Crustaceans and 15 (3.75%) were harbouring acanthocephalans (Table 48) Table 4.8: Prevalence of various parasites Type of parasite Number of

fish infested (n=400) % Trematodes Nematodes 106 138 26.5 34.5 Cestodes 60 15 Crustacea 45 11.3 Acanthocephalans 15 3.75 Source: http://www.doksinet 48 4.53 Polyparasitism Of the 139 fish which were reported to be infested with parasites, 15.8% were infested with more than one parasite while the rest 84.2% had only one parasitic infestation Parasite co-infestations were absent in cat fish (Clarias gariepinus) while Barbell (Barbus intermedius) and lung fish (Protopterus aethiopicus) had the highest prevalence of parasite co-infestations (60.9% and 300% respectively) The proportions of tilapia with parasitic co-infestations were 17.9% (Table 49) The disparity in para co-infestations amongst the fish species was significantly different (χ2 = 51.287; df = 3; p<0001) Table 4.9: Parasitic co-infestations Species 1. Presence of multiple parasite infestation Single infestation Co-infestation Frequency % Frequen % Orechromis niloticus (tilapia) 23 82.1% cy 5 17.9%

Clarias gariepinus (Cat fish) 78 100.0% 0 0.0% Barbus intermedius (Barbel) 9 39.1% 14 60.9% Protopterus aethiopicus (Lung fish) 7 70.0% 3 30.0% Overall 117 84.2% 22 15.8% Source: http://www.doksinet 49 4.54 Parasitic infections in Barbus intermedius (Barbel) The highest proportion of infestation in B. intermedius was nematodes mainly Contracecum species with prevalence (P) of 16.49% and mean intensity (Mi) of 4 found in the mesenteric and pericardial cavity (Table 4.10) Table 4.10: Parasites in B intermedius from Lake Baringo Fish organs infected P (%) Mi Contracecum sp. Mesentery, Pericardial cavity 16.49 4 Capillaria sp. Mesentery 2.06 3 Camallanus sp. Mesentery 6.18 3 Pectoral fins 4.1 2 Diplostomum sp. Eyes 1.03 1 Digenean metacercariae Intestines 1.03 20 Euclinostomum sp. Kidneys 2.06 13 Branchial/pericardial cavities 7.21 2 Bothriocephalus sp. Intestines 3.09 12 Ligula intestinalis Body cavity 3.09 1 Proteocephalus

sp. Intestines 11.34 11 Parasites Nematodes Monogeneans Gyrodactylus sp. Digeneans Clinostomum sp. Cestodes Source: http://www.doksinet 50 4.55 Parasitic infections in O niloticus (Tilapia) Diplostomatid metarcercariae was the dominant trematodes in tilapia species with prevalence (P) of 77.93% and mean intensity (Mi) of 10 mainly on the gill cavity and pericardial cavity. Encysted cestodes larvae in the muscles also showed higher prevalence (14.48%) (Table 411) Table 4.11: Parasites in O niloticus from Lake Baringo Types of parasites Fish organs infected P (% ) Mi Contracecum sp. Mesentery, Pericardial cavity 24.82 6 Capillaria sp. Mesentery 6.20 2 Camallanus sp. Mesentery 4.82 3 Fins 0.60 1.00 Diplostomum sp. Gill cavity 77.93 10 Clinostomum sp. Pericardial cavity and Branchial 6.90 3 14.48 5 Nematodes Monogeneans Gyrodactylus sp. Digeneans cavity Cestodes Encysted Cestode larvae Muscles Source: http://www.doksinet 51 4.56 Parasitic

infections in Protopterus aethiopicus (Lung fish) The highest proportion of digeneans (clinostomum sp) was observed in P. aethiopicus with prevalence of 27.39% and mean intensity of 3 This was mainly in the pericardial cavity and intestines. Acanthocephalans was only found in P aethiopicus (273%) mainly in the intestine (Table 4.12) Table 4.12: Parasites Protopterus aethiopicus from Lake Baringo Types of parasites Fish organs infected P (% ) Mi Nematodes Contracecum sp. Mesentery 5.48 4 Camallanus sp. Mesentery 1.36 3 Euclinostomum sp. Kidney 2.73 10 Clinostomum sp. Pericardial cavity and 27.39 3 15 5 Digeneans intestines Acanthocephala sp Intestine 4.57 Parasites in Clarias gariepinus (Cat fish) The highest prevalence of nematode infestation was observed in catfish (86.73%) with a mean of 12 worms per fish. Contracecum sp was the dominant nematode with prevalence of 78.49% mainly in the mesentery and pericardial cavity (Table 413) Source:

http://www.doksinet 52 Table 4.13: Parasites Prevalence (P) and mean intensity (Mi) in Clarias gariepinus from Lake Baringo Parasites Fish organs infected P (% ) Mi Contracecum sp. Mesentery 78.49 12 Capillaria sp. Pericardial cavity 2.06 3 Camallanus sp. Mesentery 6.18 3 Pectoral fins 1.6 1 Diplostomum sp. Eyes 1.03 1 Digenean metacercariae Intestines 1.03 20 Nematodes Monogeneans Gyrodactylus sp. Digeneans Source: http://www.doksinet 53 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Discussion 5.11 Effects of flooding on livelihoods and fisheries productivity The present study revealed that the most important livelihood sources for the participants in L. Baringo were fishing Food security remains compromised due to floods (Ngaira 2006). Majority of the world’s fisher folk live in areas vulnerable to climate change or depend on resources influenced by climate variation in their distribution and variation. Floodin g affected the daily

income of most stakeholders as indicated by reduced fish trader’s income during flooding and this was attributed to the reduction in fish catch. Turbulent waters are not good for fishermen’s business. According to FAO (2009), flooding has both direct and indirect impacts on fish stocks that are exploited commercially with direct effects acting on physiology and behavior, while indirect effects alter the productivity structure and composition of ecosystem on which fish depend for food and shelter (Bortman, 2003). The present study established that destruction of roads and hotels was a big loss to the local communities. One of the hotels affected was block hotels, a three- star hotel, which used to operate near the lake. Through tourist attraction the hotel used to generate income. In return, the block hotels participated in the lake management. As a result of flooding, the Block hotel is no longer operational. The present study confirms an earlier related study by Raymond et al

(2014) which pointed that disasters have massive human and economic losses. 5.12 Physico-chemical condition of Lake Baringo The Lake is situated in an arid area and therefore this explains the high temperatures recorded in the study mainly due to the high intensity of solar radiation in the study area Source: http://www.doksinet 54 ranging between 35 oC to 39 oC. It is likely that high concentration of suspended solids as a result of flooding also enhances absorption of so lar energy as has been indicated before (Ngaira, 2006). Different times of sampling led to the significant variations in temperatures at different periods of the months (Omondi et al.,2011) Sedimentation reduces both the depth and surface area of the Lake, in addition to destroying the habitats of aquatic animals and is considered to be the main environmental threat to the lake (Wahlberg et al., 2003) The high turbidity recorded in the lake in the study calls for immediate strategies to be formulated that aims

at reducing sedimentation and siltation since the lake has no surface outlet and yet it is being fed by several perennial rivers. dissolved oxygen concentration of 6.3 mg L-1 in Lake Baringo is an indication that the lake is well aerated Process of photosynthesis greatly influenced Dissolved oxygen in water (Omondi et al., 2011) Furthermore, the decomposition of allochthonous materials would also consume oxygen in such localities. Blooms of Microcystis aeruginosa (algae) use carbon dioxide for their photosynthetic activity and removal of the gas results in increased in pH and this explains the high pH recorded in the study (Oduor, 2000). Fluctuation in conductivity in Lake Baringo can be attributed to the nature of inflowing river waters. Arle (2002) reported that values of conductivity are affected by mineral concentrations and dilution affect. The onset of rains has been observed to signal radical changes in physical and chemical variables in tropical rivers (Dodds, 2002).

Conductivity levels are high during drought due to increase ion concentration, whereas when it rains there is dilution of lake water resulting in decreased ion concentrations (Wahlberg et al., 2003). Source: http://www.doksinet 55 5.13 Economic important fish species in Lake Baringo This study identified four economically important species of fish in Lake Baringo. The marbled lung fish, Protopterus aethiopicus was introduced to Lake Baringo in 1975 (Mlewa, 2003). The introduction of this species into the lake created a new fishery for the local community. It now forms a significant component of the landed catch and often dominates the annual fish landing by weight (Mlewa et al., 2004) Introduction of P. aethiopicus in Lake Baringo is of great significance to both the community and the nation at large because it has wider environmental tolerances (Mlewa and Green, 2006). The species can survive swampy conditions and periods of low dissolved oxygen, and feeding relies on non-visual

cues and hence Lake Baringo degraded habitat is unlikely to adversely affect their population. From the study investigation, P. aethiopicus is normally the target of many fishermen because of higher market value and continued exploitation of this species will however require careful regulation because P. aethiopicus has poor resistance to overfishing mostly due to low fecundity of females (Omondi et al., 2011) A number of fish species have been noted to depend on sight for their feeding and reproduction. Indeed O niloticus endemic to the lake feeds by sight and identifies spawning partners through secondary reproductive characteristics. This explains the reducing catches of the species with increase turbidity of the lake over time. Oreochromis niloticus fishing in Lake Baringo had been a source of income for local fishermen due to larger preference by many consumers as indicated by many participants in this study. Barbus intermedius is another subspecies that is endemic to the lake

with maximum standard length of 15cm as recorded in the present study. Clarias gariepinus have an elongated body with flattened bony head. According to Omondi et al. (2011) C gariepinus is an omnivore fish, feeding on insects, worms and Source: http://www.doksinet 56 aquatic plants in Lake Baringo. The present study established that the Lake waters were turbid as a result of siltation. This may imply that soil erosion has been taking place for many years without any control measures. Study by Onyando et al (2005) had suggested that higher siltation and sedimentation in the lake was attributed to soil erosion. 5.14 Prevalence of parasites The present study revealed that of the 34.8% parasites infested fish, Clarias gariaepinus (Cat fish) had higher prevalence of total infections than other species. This could be linked to higher nematodes prevalence in Clarias gariepinus (Cat fish) which recorded a mean abundance of 8 worms per host. This could be attributed to the less selective

or omnivorous behavior of this fish species. Contracecum sp was the dominant nematode in all species of fish. The presence of Camallanus and Capillaria species detected from the mesentery of B. intermedius (Barbel) and Clarias gariepinus (Cat fish) in the current study could also suggest the adaptive behavior of nematodes in relation to host specificity as reported by Marcogliese (2005). Gyrodactylus sp found on the fins of B intermedius (with 4.1% prevalence) and least prevalent in C Gariepinus (16%) was the only monogenea recorded in this study. Water currents might have a double effect on monogeneans; it brings their infective larvae on to the hosts, or gets rid of them (infective larva and mature individual). The low diversity of parasites infecting Protopterus aethiopicus from Lake Baringo does not agree with reports by Lemma (2013) that animals introduced into a new environment are usually more heavily infected by the native parasites than endemic species are. The absence of

ectoparasites on Protopterus aethiopicus further testifies to this, because they are very sensitive to changes in environmental conditions (Laferty and Luris, 2004). Hence those parasites that might have arrived with Protopterus aethiopicus probably disappeared under Source: http://www.doksinet 57 tropical conditions. This particular fish species seems to be more tolerant than other fish species described in this study. Despite visible lesions caused by nematodes on Clarias gariepinus (Cat fish), the presence of the parasites did not seem to affect the body condition of their host. These findings agree with those of Abebe (2010), that in natural environments, parasites are normally in a complex dynamic equilibrium with their host. However, this is only true as long as the environment is not disturbed, for example through pollution (Barros et al., 2004). An intensively cultivated land where large amounts of fertilizers and pesticides are used takes place in Perkerra, one of the

Rivers feeding Lake Baringo. These chemicals are likely to accumulate with time and might eventually lead to stressful conditions, which may make the fish more susceptible to the helminth parasites (Yanong, 2006). On the other hand, the pollutants may kill the intermediate hosts of the parasites, which would possibly reduce the chances of infections. The present study revealed that the acanthocephalans occurred in very low numbers in fish from L. Baringo, a condition that may be attributed to the fact that the supposed intermediate hosts, Ostracods, is affected by the salinity of the water and therefore occurs in very low numbers (Dias et al., 2013) 5.15 Lake Baringo flooding The human and animal population around Lake Baringo has risen over the years and this has put a lot of pressure in both the lake and the vegetation around it. This in the past has resulted in land degradation which in turn has contributed immensely to lake pollution (Onyando et al. (2005) Flooding of Lake Baringo

is not a new phenomenon The Lake has had history of water level changes recorded since 1860 (NDMA, 2013). This indicated an overall fall in water level since 1917. Lake Baringo has no surface outlet and Source: http://www.doksinet 58 the lake’s ecosystem has kept fluctuating owing to massive degradation due to intensive cultivation, overpopulation and the large number of cattle kept by some section of the residents all of which have influenced the quality of the runoff and discharge feeding the lake. Oduor (2000) illustrated that the Lakes’ physico-chemical and biological properties are influenced by the hydrological cycle of the catchment which in turn influenced physical parameters like the conductivity, pH, dissolve oxygen concentration and many other parameters. The recent 2011 to 2012 flooding of Lake Baringo suggest that flooding follows a climatic cycle of 50 years (IPCC 2001). 5.2 Conclusions i. This research revealed that fishing and related activities is the primary

livelihood source for the assessed communities in L. Baringo Flooding affected the daily income of most stakeholders. Fish trader’s income reduced drastically during flooding and this was attributed to the reduction in fish catch. Flooding also destroyed many hotels and infrastructure which support the fishing industry in the area. This resulted in the reduced number of tourist and fish consumption went down. ii. The present study revealed that of the 34.8% parasites infested fish, Clarias gariaepinus had higher prevalence of total infections than other species. This could be linked to higher nematodes prevalence in Clarias gariepinus which recorded a mean mean infection rate of 8 worms per host. This could be attributed to the less selective or omnivorous behavior of this fish species. iii. The water in Lake Baringo has abnormally high turbidity which may have increased because of siltation due to increased soil erosion in the catchment. Total Source: http://www.doksinet 59

phosphorus and total nitrogen values reflect the hypertonic conditions of the lake water. 5.3 Recommendations i. Because of the ongoing environmental and arthropogenic activities in the catchment of Lake Baringo, increase in parasite population is possible. To control this, proper manteinance of water quality and right stocking density should be taken into considerations. In addition, all the intermediate hosts of parasites like gastropods and crustaceans should be reduced to limit the colonization and spreading of parasitic infections. This can be done by introduction of other fish species that feeds on these organisms e.g siluroid fish ii. The local community should be properly educated about parasite transmission risks associated with eating raw fish. Proper cooking of fish inactivate the parasite, representing useful individual control method. When raw or slightly cooked parasitized fish are eaten the parasites, Clinostomid digenians and contracecum nematodes may be transmitted

to the consumers. iii. Based on the findings of this research, proper soil cover in the catchment of the Lake should be put in place to reduce siltation. This will stop the soil filtrate hence reducing turbidity in the lake especially during early rainfall. This will result in increased productivity due to increased light penetration. This will also control pollution into the lake Baringo hence preventing eutrophication. iv. There is need for diversification of livelihood activities to caution people when the lake is flooded. This could be done by encouraging the community especially at Source: http://www.doksinet 60 Kampi ya Samaki to keep livestock like sheeps and goats. In addition, the county government of Baringo should introduce dairy goats and indigenous chicken as a way of diversification to minimize pressure on the Lake fishery. Source: http://www.doksinet 61 REFERENCES Abebe, T. (2010) The Effect of stocking density and supplementary feed on growth performance

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River, Brazil. Journal parasitology research 89 (6): 506508 Source: http://www.doksinet 62 Dodds, W. K (2002) Fresh water Ecology: Concepts and environmental applications Academic press. San Diego Pp569 Eisenbarth, A. (2009) Occurrence of intestinal fish parasites Australia:Identification of anisakid nematodes in commercially available fish speciesfrom south Australian Waters. Diplomica Verlag Pp 467 Eissa, I. A Derwa, H I Noor El Deen, A E and Abdelhady M S (2013) Studies on the prevailing ectoparasitic protozoal diseases in wild and cultured Oreochromis niloticuswith reference to control. The Global Journal of Fisheries and Aquaculture Research 6: 57-64. FAO, (2009). State of food insecurity in the world, 10th progress report on world hunger since 1996. Franceschi, N., Bauer, A, Bollache, L and Rigaud, T (2008) The effects of parasite age and intensity on variability in acanthocephalan-induced behavioral manipulation. International Journal for Parasitology 38: 1161-1170. Ghidini,

A. R, Serafim-Jr, M Neves, G P and de Brito, L (2009) Distribution of planktonic cladocerans (Crustacea: Branchiopoda) of a shallow eutrophic reservoir (Parana state, Brazil). Pan- American Journal of Aquatic Sciences 4: 294-305 Hakan, T. Arzu, B Y and Fatma, P K (2003) Sensitivity of Bacteria isolated from fish to some medicinal plants. Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 9: 181-186. Hecht, T. and Endermann, F (2007) The impact of parasites, infections and diseases on the development of aquaculture in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Applied Ichthyology 14: 3 - 4. Hunter, P. R (2003) Climate change and water borne and vector-borne disease Journal of Microbiology 94: 1-138. Jason. S, Winnie V and Monica A O (2002) Impact of gold mining on the environment and human health: a case study in the Migori Gold Belt, Kenya. Environmental Geochemistry Health 24: 141-158. Jonathan A., Thaddeus K, Nina G and Amy Y (2000) Effects of environment on emerging parasitic diseases.

International Journal For Parasitology 2000: 1-11 Justine, J. L (2010) Parasites of coral reef fish: how much do we know? With a bibliography of fish parasites in New Caledonia. Belgian Journal of Zoology 140: 155190 Khan, R. A (2009) Parasites causing disease in wild and cultured fish in New found land. Icelandic Agricultural Sciences 22: 29-35 Klinger, R. E and Francis-floyd, R (2002) parasites, 3rd ed. Florida, IFAS VOL 716, pp 1–12 Introduction to fresh water fish Source: http://www.doksinet 63 Laferty, K. D and Kuris A M (2004) Parasitism and environmental disturbances.HostParasite Relationship Saarbrücken: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. Lafferty, K. D, Allesina, S, Arim, M, Briggs, C J, De Leo, G, Dobson, A P, Dunne, J. A, Johnson, P T J, Kuris, A M, Marcogliese, D J, Martinez, N D, Memmott, J., Marquet, P A, McLaughlin, J P, Mordecai, E A, Pascual, M, Poulin, R. and Thieltges, D W (2008) Parasites in food webs: the ultimate missing links. Ecology Letters 11: 533-546

Laimgruber S., Schludermann C, Konecny R and Chanovec A (2005) Helminth communities of barbel Barbus barbus from large river systems in Austria. Journal of Helminthology 79: 143-149. Lemma A. (2013) Study on temporal variation of internal fish parasites in Lake Zwai, Ethiopia. African Journal of Fisheries Science 1: 001-004 Luoma., S N and Rainbow P S (2008) Metal contamination in aquatic environments Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, pp 169-202. Marcogliese, D. J (2001) Parasites of fish in fresh water; EMAN, Canada http://www.eman Marcogliese., D J (2005) Parasites of super organism: Are they indicators of ecosystem health? International Journal for Parasitoogy 82: 389-399. Madhavan, R., Bandyopadhyay, P K and Santosh, B (2013) Observations on the histopathological changes caused by myxosporidian infections in minor carps. Journal of Parasitic Diseases 37 : 185–188. Miller, D. A (2011) Farming and the food supply Detroit: Greenhaven Press Morsy, K. and Ali, M S (2015)

Parasites of Fresh Water Fish Part I: Biological Murrell, K. D, and Fried, B (2007) Food-borne parasitic zoonoses: Fish and plant borne. Mlewa, C. M, (2003) Biology of the African Lungfish Protopterus aethiopicus Newfoundland, Canada: St Johns Memorial University. PhD thesis Mlewa, C. M and Green J M (2006) Translocation of marbled African lungfish, Protopterus aethiopicus (Telostei: Protopteridae), and its fishery in Lake Baringo, Kenya. African Journal of Aquatic Science 3(1): 131-136 Mlewa, C. M, Green, J M and Simms, A (2004) Biology of the marbled lungfish, Protopterus aethiopicus, in Lake Baringo, Kenya. African Journal of Ecology 42: 338345 Source: http://www.doksinet 64 Mlewa, C. M, Green, J M and Simms, A (2005) Movement and habitat use by the marbled lungfish Protopterus aethiopicus in Lake Baringo, Kenya. Hydrobiologia 537: 229-238. National Drought Management Authority (NDMA) (2013). Rapid flood assessment Report 7th and 8th August 2013. Ngaira, J. K (2006) Implication

of climate change on the management of Rift valley lakes in kenya: the case of Lake Baringo. http://oce andocscom Nyakeo, A. O and Njeru P K (2013) Rapid flood assessment report on 7th and 8th August 2013 National Drought Management Authority, County of Baringo. Odada, E. O, Onyando, J O and Obudho P A (2004) Lake Baringo Addressing threatened biodiversity and livelihoods. Lakes and Reservors Research and Management 11: 287-299. Oduor, S. (2000) Physico-chemical Dynamics, Pelagial primary production and Algal composition in Lake Baringo,Kenya. MSc Thesis, Austria P83 Okaeme., A N, Obiekezie, A I, Rehmen, J and Mark, O A (1998) Parasites and diseases of cultured fish of lake Kainji area Nigeria. Fish Biology Journal 32: 479- 481 Omondi., R Yasindi, A W and Magana, A (2011) Spatial and temporal variations of zooplankton in relation to semi environmental factors in lake Baringo, Kenya Egerton Journal. Onyando., J O, Kisoyan, P and Chemelil, M C (2005) Estimation of potential soil

erosion for River Perkerra catchment in Lake Baringo, kenya. Water Resource Management 19: 133-143. Orina, P . S, Maina, J G, Karuri, E G, Mbuthia, P G, Omolo, B, Owiti, G O., Musa, S and Munguti, J M (2014) Situational analysis of Nile tilapia and African catfish hatcheries management: a case study of Kisii and Kirinyaga counties in Kenya. Livestock Research for Rural Development 26: 1-8 Orlov, A. and Beamish, R (2016) Jawless Fishes of the World: Volume 2 Newcastleupon-parasites (Springer e-books) New York, NY: Springer Pouder, D. B, Curtis, E W and Roy, P E (2005) Common fresh water fish parasites Pictorial Guide. University of Florida, IFAS Extension FA 112 Poulin, R. (2006) Variations in infection parameters among populations withinparasite species; intrinsic properties versus local factors. International Journal for Parasitology 36(8): 877-885. Poulin, R. and Morand, S (2004) Parasite Biodiversity Washington, DC Smithsonian Institution Press 32: 83-101 Source:

http://www.doksinet 65 Raymond, C.L, Peterson, DL, Rochefort, RM, and Pacific Northwest station (2014). Climate change vulnerability and adaptation in the North cascades region, Washington. US Dept of Agriculture Roberts, R. J (2001) Fish Pathology 3rd edn Technical Director, Landa catches Ltd Scotland, pp. 270–300 Scholz, T., Bray, R A, Kuchta R and Řepová, R (2004) Larvae of gryporhynchid cestodes (Cyclophyllidea) from fish: a review. Folia Parasitol 51: 131-152 Sures, B. (2008) Environmental parasitology Interactions between parasites and pollutants in the aquatic environment. Journal of Helminthology 15: 434-438 USAID (2006). Special report: Kenya lake Region February 2006 Wahlberg, H. T, Harper D and Wahlberg N T (2003) A first limnlogical description of Lake Kichiritith, Kenya: a possible reference site for the freshwater lakes of the Gregory Rift Valley. Africa Science Journal 9: 44-45 World Book (2001). Encyclopaedia, Volume 7, C1, Chicago Ascot Fetzer Company, pp

150–180. Yanong R. P E (2006) Nematode (Roundworm) infections in fish Circular 91, Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Yimer, E. and Enyew, M (2003) Parasites of fish at Lake Tana, Ethiopia Ethiopian Journal Science 261: 31-36. Source: http://www.doksinet 66 APPENDICES Appendix I: Questionnaires FISHERMEN QUESTIONNAIRE Serial No. Date / / 2015 Greetings! My name is Wilfred Sigei from Kenyatta University, School of Pure and Applied Science, MSc student in Applied Parasitology doing a research on fish parasites, productivity and water quality in relation to flooding here in Lake Baringo. The main objective of this questionnaire is to investigate the effects of flooding of Lake Baringo on Fisheries. Your responses will be treated as highly confidential Wish to request you to take your time in filling the following questions. Thanks in advance. 1. Please

indicate your gender Male Female 2. Indicate your age 15-24 25-34 35-44 44 and above Source: http://www.doksinet 67 3. Indicate your marital status Single Married Divorced 4. Indicate your tribe Njemps Tugens Pokots Others, specify. 5. Indicate your educational level Primary Secondary Tertiary None Source: http://www.doksinet 68 6. Indicate your residence Kampi ya samaki Kokwa Loruk Salabani Others, specify. 7. Indicate your purpose of fishing Personal consumption Commercial Both Others, specify. Source: http://www.doksinet 69 8. If for commercial purposes, where do you sell your fish? 9. What method do you use while fishing? Use of hook Use of cannon Use of boat 10. How many years have you been fishing? Up to 1 year 2 to 3 years 3 to 4 years More than 4 years 11. For the time you have been in the field have you experienced any

change in water levels? Yes No Source: http://www.doksinet 70 If yes, which month and year did it happen and how long did it happen? 12. Do you think this water level changes had any negative impact (destruction) on physical structures? Yes No If yes, which ones? (Give examples) Which fish species do you commonly deal with? i. ii. iii. iv. v. Source: http://www.doksinet 71 13. Do you think flooding has affected fish species composition? Yes No FISH INCREASE DECREASE SPECIES 1 Tilapia (Orechromis niloticus) 2 Cat Fish(Clarias gariepinus) 3 Barbus intermedius 5

Proteopterus aethiopicus If yes, how did it affected catch per day in each species? Tick( whether it increase or decrease 15. Which fish species do you think was mostly affected? 16. How much is (was) your average catch per day? (indicate by number ie 100, 200 etc) i. Before flooding ii. During flooding Source: http://www.doksinet 72 iii. After flooding 17. Which fish species were/are common; I. Before flooding II. During flooding III. After flooding 18. Indicate the average weight of fish (in kg) before, during and after flooding Fish spp. Tilapia (Orechcromis niloticus) Cat fish (Clarias gariepinus) Barbus intermedius Kamongo (protopterus aethiopicus) Weight before Weight during

Weight after flooding flooding flooding Source: http://www.doksinet 73 19. Indicate the current prices of the following types of fish at its mature state Oreochromis niloticus (tilapia) Pretopterus aethiopicus (kamongo) Clarias gariepinus (catfish) Barbus Intermidius (Nile Perch) 20. Is fishing easier or difficult on a flooded lake? Yes No Explain 21 Do you encounter any death fish when you are fishing? Yes No If YES, indicate the average number of death fish before, during and after flooding. NUMBER OF DEATH BEFORE DURING AFTER FISH PER DAY FLOODING FLOODING FLOODING 0-----10 10----20 20-----30 30 and more Source: http://www.doksinet 74 2. Do you commonly encounter Fish parasites in your catches? Yes No If yes, which ones? (Give examples) i. ii. iii. iv. 3. Which fish parasites in your observation do you

think were common before, during and after flooding? TYPE OF PARASITES BEFORE DURING AFTER FLOODING FLOODING FLOODING Source: http://www.doksinet 75 Villagers Questionnaire Serial No Date / /2015 Greetings! My name is Wilfred Sigei from Kenyatta University, School of Pure and Applied Science, MSc student in Applied Parasitology doing a research on fish parasites, productivity and water quality in relation to flooding here in Lake Baringo .The main objective of this questionnaire is to investigate the effects of flooding of Lake Baringo on Fisheries. Your responses will be treated as highly confidential Wish to request you to take your time in filling the following questions. Thanks in advance. Part A; personal details. 1. What is your age? 2. What us your gender? Male Female 3. What is your position the society? Chief/Ass chief/Police administrator Boat owners Fish administrator (fisheries officer) Source: http://www.doksinet 76

Village 4. How long have you been living in this area? Less than 1 year 1-3 yrs 3-5 yrs More than 5 yrs Part B; Fish productivity 1. What is your favorite fish species that you eat? 2. In your stay here did you notice any change in water level? Yes No If yes, when did you noticed? 3. Do you think change in water levels has affected Fisheries productivity? Yes No If yes, how was it affected? Source: http://www.doksinet 77 4. Did flooding affected the availability of fish in the market? Yes No If Yes, Did it increased or decreased? Increased Decreased 5. Did Flooding affected the prices of different species of fish

in the market? Yes No’ If yes, how did it affected? Source: http://www.doksinet 78 Hotel management Questionnaire Serial No Date / /2015 Greetings! My name is Wilfred Sigei from Kenyatta University, School of Pure and Applied Science, MSc student in Applied Parasitology doing a research on fish parasites, productivity and water quality in relation to flooding here in Lake Baringo .The main objective of this questionnaire is to investigate the effects of flooding of Lake Baringo on Fisheries. Your responses will be treated as highly confidential Wish to request you to take your time in filling the following questions. Part A; personal details. 1 What is your age? 2 What us your gender? Male Female 3. What is your position the society? Chief/Ass chief/Police administrator Boat owners Fish administrator (fisheries officer) Hotel administrator/Owner Source: http://www.doksinet 79 4. How long have you been living in this area? Less than 1

year 1-3 yrs 3-5 yrs More than 5 yrs PART B; Fish productivity 1. What is the favorite fish type/species that your customers like most? 2. i. ii. Do you encounter fish parasites when preparing fish for your customers? Yes No If yes, which ones are common? i. ii. 3. In what way do you ensure that the parasites do not affect your customers? Source: http://www.doksinet 80 4. In your stay here have you witness in the past any change in water level or flooding? If yes, when was it? 5. Do you think the change in water level affected the number or visitors? Yes No If yes, how was it affected?

4. Did flooding affected your business premises? Yes No If yes, What are some of your properties destroyed by floods? i. ii. Source: http://www.doksinet 81 Questionnaire for stake holders Government officers Serial No Date / /2015 Greetings! My name is Wilfred Sigei from Kenyatta University, School of Pure and Applied Science, MSc student in Applied Parasitology doing a research on fish parasites, productivity and water quality in relation to flooding here in Lake Baringo .The main objective of this questionnaire is to investigate the effects of flooding of Lake Baringo on Fisheries. Your responses will be treated as highly confidential Wish to request you to take your time in filling the following questions. Thanks in advance. Part A; personal details. 1 What

is your age? 2 What us your gender? Male Female 3 What is your position the society? Chief/Ass chief/Police administrator/clinical officers Boat owners Fish administrator (fisheries officer) Source: http://www.doksinet 82 Villager Hotel administrator 4 How long have you been working in this area? Less than 1 year 1-3 yrs. 3-5 yrs. More than 5 yrs. Part B: FISH PRODUCTIVITY 1. In your view, has fishing contributed positively to socio-economic activities of this area? Yes No If yes, how? 2. Did you witness in the past any change in water level or flooding? Yes No Source: http://www.doksinet 83 If yes, when did this happen and how long did it took?

3. What physical properties were destroyed by floods? 4. Do you think, flooding affected fishing activities in this area? Yes No If yes, did it increased or decreased? 5. Are Fish consumption associated with any human diseases? Yes No If yes, which are some of the diseases transmitted to humans? Source: http://www.doksinet 84 Fisheries Department Questionnaire Serial No Date

/ /2015 Greetings! My name is Wilfred Sigei from Kenyatta University, School of Pure and Applied Science, MSc student in Applied Parasitology doing a research on fish parasites, productivity and water quality in relation to flooding here in Lake Baringo .The main objective of this questionnaire is to investigate the effects of flooding of Lake Baringo on Fisheries. Your responses will be treated as highly confidential Wish to request you to take your time in filling the following questions. Thanks in advance. Part A; personal details. 1 What is your age? 1. What us your gender? Male Female 2. What is your position the society? Chief/Ass chief/Police administrator Boat owners Source: http://www.doksinet 85 Fish administrator (fisheries officer) Hotel administrator 3. How long have you been working in this area? a. Less than 1 year b. 1-3 yrs. c. 3-5 yrs. d. More than 5 yrs e. Part B; Fisheries productivity 4. Do you have rules

governing fishing activities? Yes No If yes, how strict are they applied to the fishers Very strictly Strict to some extent Source: http://www.doksinet 86 5. In your stay here at the Lake have you witness in the past any change in water level or flooding of the Lake? Yes No If yes, when did this happen and for how long? 6. In your records do you find a difference in fish caught during flooding, and after flooding? Yes No If yes, explain the change (indicate the difference in figure if possible) 7. Did changes in water level affected water quality? Yes No If yes, how was the following parameters affected by flooding

Temperature Source: http://www.doksinet 87 PH DO Conductivity 8. How long does it take for a fish to mature? Less than 3 months 3-4 months 4-6 months 9. Did flooding affected the maturation of fish? Yes No If yes, indicate the time it takes during flooding? Less than 3 months 3-4 months 4-6 months Source: http://www.doksinet 88 QUESTIONNAIRE FOR FISH TRADERS Serial No Date / / 2015 Greetings! My name is Wilfred Sigei from Kenyatta University, School of Pure and Applied Science, MSc student in Applied Parasitology doing a research on fish parasites, productivity and water quality in relation to flooding here in Lake Baringo .The main objective of this questionnaire is to investigate the effects of flooding of Lake Baringo on Fisheries.

Your responses will be treated as highly confidential Wish to request you to take your time in filling the following questions. Thanks in advance. Part A: personal details. 1. What is your age? 15-24 25-34 35-44 44 and above 2. What us your gender? Male Female Source: http://www.doksinet 89 3. What is your marital status? Married Single 4. State the different types of fish species you commonly encounter/deal with? 5. Where do you sell your fish? 6. What is your average earning per day from fish trading activities? Less than 100 101 – 300 301 – 600 601 – 800 800 – 1000 More than 1000 Source:

http://www.doksinet 90 7. For the time you have been here, have you ever witness any change in water level or Flooding of the lake? Yes No If yes, when did this happen and how long did it take? 8 Is there any difference in your earning before, during and after flooding? Yes No If yes, indicate the differences? Average earnings ≥1000 600-800 300-600 100-300 NO DIFFERENCE BEFORE DURING AFTER FLOODING FLOODING FLOODING Source: http://www.doksinet 91 9. What was the average depth of the lake before during and after flooding? Average depths(meters) 1-3 meters 3-5 meters 5-7 meters 7-8 meters BEFORE DURING AFTER FLOODING FLOODING FLOODING Source: http://www.doksinet 92 Appendix II: Physico-chemical analysis table Parameter Month May June Std July Std August Std Mean error Mean error Mean error September Std Mean error Mean Std error Temp 26.2 0170 261 0065 249 0397 253 0442 258

0345 PH 9.02 0084 903 0060 913 0048 890 0041 910 0070 Conductivity 1.55 00165 160 00138 163 00417 169 00111 170 00298 Dissolved oxygen 6.36 01796 660 01080 630 01683 641 01841 603 01109 Depth (M) 5.74 01106 538 01887 556 02719 523 00323 534 01725 Turbidity 470 Salinity 0.63 00363 079 00239 074 00554 073 00323 080 00540 Nitrogen 1.48 01652 115 00645 1003 00854 093 01031 085 01041 Phosphorus 0.95 00645 095 01190 093 00854 095 00866 1005 00645 0.0752 730 0.0881 550 0.3192 912 0.0343 490 0.3427 Source: http://www.doksinet 93 Appendix III: Research Authorization