Sports | Hunting » Benyr-Littlewood-Czirák - Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania

Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Part 2: A Report to the EU CITES Scientific Review Group on the Experts Mission to Tanzania, 19 - 27 August 2016 Prepared by Gerald Benyr, Alison Littlewood, and Zoltán Czirák May 2017 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Introduction Successful conservation of large and dangerous animals, such as lions, depends primarily on the size of the available habitat. In this respect Tanzania is a model to others, with more than a quarter of their land set aside for wildlife conservation and hosting the world’s largest lion population. Accordingly, Tanzania has an important contribution and responsibility for the conservation of this species. Lions are an iconic species and this focuses public and political attention on their conservation (Macdonald et al. 2016) As a consequence, conclusions about the best management practice are often influenced by moral and ethical

considerations. On such a divisive issue, even the best available science seems to be unable to produce unambiguous results. Hence, sometimes it is necessary to make recommendations and decisions in a field of contradictions. 1 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Contents Contents . 2 Objectives . 3 Information Base . 3 Monitoring. 4 Distribution and Habitat Protection . 5 Population Size . 5 Population Trends . 7 Political Commitment . 9 Legislation. 10 Quota . 14 Sex and Age Restrictions . 16 Compliance Measures . 18 Community Based Natural Rsource Management (CBNRM) . 23 Human-Wildlife Conflicts. 24 Hunting Industry . 26 Consequences of Hunting. 29 Recommendations to Tanzania . 30 Acknowledgements . 30 Summary . 33 Literature . 34 2 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Objectives This report aims to provide a comprehensive summary of the facts necessary for a SRG decision about the

sustainability of lion trophy hunting in Tanzania. It takes into account the stricter rules for trade in hunting trophies adopted at CoP17 (Resolution Conf. 179) With the reports of UNEP-WCMC (2016), TAWIRI (2016), and Macdonald (2016), three excellent summaries of the implications between lion trophy hunting and conservation became available and it was not the goal of this report to replicate their content. Instead, we focus on combining the data provided by these three studies with conclusions drawn on the basis of our firsthand experience during the field mission, the information gathered during long discussions with those who actually work on the ground for the conservation and management of the Tanzanian lion population, and selected literature which addresses recent concerns about the conservation of this species. Information Base Compared with most other threatened species, the available knowledge about lions is extensive and comprises several hundred peer reviewed publications

and reports. However, in the knowledge that the range of this species extends over the major part of Africa, it is also important to take into account the regional differences in habitat, human-wildlife conflicts, conservation policy, wildlife management, and population structure that exist. During the course of the SRG field mission an extensive amount of information has been gathered. Together with the published literature (especially TAWIRI Wildlife Division and TAWA 2016), this provides the basis for the following evaluation. It has not been possible to personally verify all the unpublished data provided by Tanzanian authorities during the course of the SRG field mission. However, during detailed discussions with their national experts, the presented facts held up to scrutiny and did not reveal inconsistencies. This allowed greater confidence in the accuracy of the available information and the conclusions based on them. 3 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion

Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Monitoring Approaches to estimate the size of lion populations are usually based on spoor counts (Davidson and Ellitot n.d) and call-up surveys (= lion collapse technique) Both methods require considerable extrapolation and are susceptible to bias due to properties of the landscape (Funston et al. 2010) Due to the usually high coefficient of variation (eg Kissui 2009) for data from distance-based spoor counts of lions, abrupt declines are probably not discernable below 20% and only above 50% it is likely to detect them (Durant et al. 2011) Even less reliable are estimates of the lion population size based on the prey-biomass regression (Kiffner et al. 2009) For elusive species, such as lions, the effort of a survey often influences the assessment of the number of individuals inhabiting an area. Only in very few cases, long term observations allow individual counts and more accurate assessments of the population size. Recognition of individuals is more

difficult in lions than in large carnivores with a complex pattern and requires the utilization of less obvious individual differences, such as whisker-spot patterns (Pennycuick and Rudnai 1970; Anderson et al. 2010) Nevertheless, a combination of strategically placed camera traps and random encounter models (REMs) can provide reliable data (Cusack et al. 2015) Detailed knowledge about lion populations mainly originate from national parks (e.g Serengeti NP) where no hunting is allowed. Inferences about lion presence and abundance outside of protected areas are deduced mainly from an analysis of human-wildlife conflicts (Ikanda and Packer 2006). Missing calibrations between different surveillances methods often make studies incomparable and prevent an accurate calculation of population trends (Brink et al. 2013) In average, each year since 2005 one local lion population has been surveyed in Tanzania (TAWIRI Wildlife Division and TAWA 2016). This is probably sufficient to obtain an

overview of the national lion population. By taking the huge number of wildlife protection areas and the occurrence of lion populations on unprotected land into consideration, it will never be possible to conduct frequent surveys of all lion populations and deduce detailed trend analyses. Currently, there are six long-term monitoring projects with individual recognition of the specimens and in Selous observations on 7 - 9 prides reach back 40 years. However, some important lion strongholds (e.g Ruaha-Rungwa) are not included in this program Updates about the overall population size and trends are not provided as frequently as it would be possible due to the availability of new data. Tanzania seems to be aware that solid population data are a prerequisite for sustainable use of lions and willing to further invest in surveys. 4 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Distribution and Habitat Protection According to the area dedicated to the

protection of wildlife, Tanzania is one of the worlds leading countries in nature conservation (Brockington 2008) and lion clearly benefits from this policy. Of 516900 km² of permanent lion presence range in Tanzania, 57838 km² (11,4 %) lie within National Parks and 304.400 km² (61,0 %) are designated as hunting areas (Mésochina et al. 2010) Ikanda and Packer (2006) estimate 81 % (13600) of the lion population live in areas protected by National Parks (17,4 %), hunting areas (46,0 %), and areas such as forest reserves (17,6 %). Figure 2: Distribution of the Tanzanian lion population from Mesochina et al. (2010) Figure 1: Protected areas in Tanzania from TAWIRI (2016) 5 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Population Size The estimate for the lion population of Tanzania presented by TAWIRI (2016) is based on Ikanda and Packer (2006) and Mésochina et al. (2010) and accounts for 17564 (12208 – 19320) and 16.800 respectively Both

reports break down the population estimates to the level of regions, ecosystems, or protected areas. Information obtained by surveys since 2010 (e.g Laizer 2014; Crosmary et al. 2016) is summarized in Table 1 of TAWIRI Wildlife Division and TAWA (2016) but did not lead to an update the total population size. Macdonald (2016) cites Dickman (in prep.) with an estimate of 9900 This study is currently unpublished and no information about the methodology is available. These estimates differ considerably and indicate a decline but they also demonstrate the importance of Tanzania for the global conservation of this species. In general, lion density is highest in national parks (e.g 22/100 km² in Ngorongoro) and declining with the protection status of the area. In comparison, the lion density is only 5,4/100 km² in Selous (Crosmary et al. 2016), where elephant poaching might have enhanced the food supply a few years ago. However, it should be considered that for lions habitat preference and

habitat capacity can vary considerably according to the abundance of prey and availability of water (Spong 2002; Hayward et al. 2007) 6 Figure 3: Range and population size for lions in Tanzania after Ikanda & Packer (2006) and Mesochina et al. (2010) Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Population Trends Poorly regulated hunting on lions presumably was a major cause of population decline in previous decades (IUCN 2014). The only attempt to actually calculate populations trends for Tanzanian lions predicts a high chance for a decline of the East African lion metapopulation (Bauer et al. 2015a) However, whilst this publication presents a valuable compilation of data several problems with the interpretation of the data exist which affects their assessment of trophy hunting in Tanzania:   The use of unweighted means to summarize population trends emphasizes changes in small populations. This is best explained by an example:

Population A declines from 10 to 5 specimens = -5 specimens and -50% Population B increases from 500 to 550 specimens = +50 Specimens and +10% Unweighted means would result in an average population decline of 20%, even though the total population has increased by 45 specimens. There are arguments pro and against such a statistics and if they are used it is important to beware biased conclusions. The extrapolation of trends beyond the information-content of the available data has led to an exaggeration of the threat for a decline. Depending on the applied method, every population survey will report a certain degree of uncertainty about the estimated number of specimens. Hence, even for a perfect stable population at the maximum of the habitat capacity, the survey will indicate that the population could be smaller or larger than the estimated mean. In figure 2, 3, and 4 of Bauer et al (2015b), for populations with a λ ≈ 1 the grey area represents the likelihood of a decline and the

white area represents an equal likelihood for an increase. However, the calculation of the cumulative probabilities only focuses on the possible decline and extrapolates it for three generations. This can lead to predictions of considerable probabilities for population declines for most likely stable populations and conclusions that are far away from reality. Furthermore, these considerations include no positive effects that a previous decline might have on the population growth by increasing availability of preferred habitats and food and reducing intraspecific conflicts. 7 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Figure 4: Trends for Tanzanian lion populations from Bauer et al. (2015) (modified) Much attention has been focused on the decline of lions in Katavi. The local decline to the brink of extinction reported by Bauer et al. (2015a, 2016) after Caro (2011) even the imprecision of the times series and survey methodology was acknowledged

(Bauer et al. 2015b) has been contradicted by Kiffner et al. (2009), Riggio et al (2016), and Tim Caro himself (DeMarco 2015). A possible cause might be a previous decline in large ungulates (Caro 2008) and consecutive lack of prey or unregulated hunting on lions. According to current knowledge, a severe decline has happened but a recent case of predation on humans, tourist photographs of a reproducing pride and hunting success in adjacent areas provided evidence that the lion population of Katavi is not extinct. Such cases are a test for the quality of Tanzania’s conservation management and this point has been thoroughly discussed during the SRG Field Figure 5: Population trend for lions in Katavi after Bauer et al. (2015a) Mission. In recognition of the necessity to carefully survey the national populations, the Tanzanian Minister for Natural Resources and Tourism ordered to conduct a nationwide survey of lions and leopards and especially the situation in Katavi. Several steps have

already taken place, including holding a planning workshop, successfully soliciting donor funding, and drafting a detailed project description (Ikanda et al. 2016) The start is planned for May-June 2017, after the rain season 8 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania In summary, of the six lion populations of Tanzania included in the study of Bauer et al. (2015a) the available information does provide an indication for a decline in Katavi and Tarangire, a stable development in Ngorongoro and Matambwe and an increase in Serengeti and Niassa. These developments have not been evaluated in relationship to the habitat capacity and are therefore difficult to interpret. For the Tarangire National Park, a thorough survey has recently demonstrated that the population is not in immediate danger more conservation efforts are needed to stabilize or revert the trend (Laizer 2014). For the Selous Game Reserve, a recent survey revealed that lion densities

have remained stable and even increased in some sectors since 2009 (Crosmary et al. 2016) This contradicts concerns about the sustainability of trophy hunting in the reserve, previously expressed by (Packer et al. 2011). It has to be assumed that human wildlife conflicts will increasingly cause population declines, especially in small sanctuaries and unprotected areas with a high density of pastoral cattle. For example, the lion population within Selous Game Reserve remains stable at a level of 4000 specimens whereas it decreased from 3600 to 1000 in the surrounding area. Political Commitment The investment in scientific research about wildlife conservation, the establishment of TAWA, and the engagement of high ranking officials during the SRG field mission convincingly demonstrate that sustainable wildlife conservation management has a high priority in Tanzania. A number of recent reforms of the wildlife regulations substantiate the political commitment of Tanzania to adopt best

practice models and contribute to their improvement. Nevertheless, past has shown that illegal hunting fluctuates in synchrony with governmental priorities and continuity of the efforts and investments in conservation will remain a crucial factor. If the revenues generated by the wildlife sector drop significantly, other forms of land use (e.g mining) might become more attractive and human-wildlife conflicts can lead to considerable political pressure. Under such circumstances, the current nature conservation friendly political course might become a major burden before elections. 9 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Legislation It is beyond the capabilities of this field mission to explore all details of the respective legislations. Having said this, it is still possible to report that every aspect of hunting and conservation seems to be sufficiently covered by a legislation which meets the requirements of a modern constitutional state

and is in accordance with international best practice. Details about specific aspects of the legislation are provided in the respective sections about the hunting management and human-wildlife conflicts. In both respects Tanzania has made considerable progress over the past decade. The major parts of the Tanzanian wildlife legislation are:      Wildlife Conservation Act No.5 of 2009 Wildlife Conservation (Tourist Hunting) Regulations of 2010 & 2015 Tanzania National Parks Act (CAP 284 R.E 2002) Ngorongoro Conservation Area Act (CAP 282 R.E 2002) Wildlife Conservation (CITES Implementation) Regulations of 2005 (currently under review) For the scope of this report it might be noteworthy, that all game is owned by the state and currently no resident hunting on lions is allowed. From the point of conservation, the transfer of ownership rights for a lot of land after 12 years of irregular occupation has the potential to downsize sanctuaries piece by piece. Shooting a

lion is only allowed during the hours of darkness to ease tracking of wounded specimens. 10 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Conservation In Tanzania, several factors are responsible for the (unnatural) death of lions and have the potential to contribute to the decline of this species. The coexistence of a large and dangerous predator with humans usually fails as soon as a marginal human population density is exceeded (Bauer et al. 2016). In Tanzania, traditional cattle faming culture and rapid population growth exacerbate this conflict and results in a high number of retaliation killings. Figure 6: Potential reasons for an increased morality and a decline of the size or growth of the lion population in Tanzania Transfer of diseases from domestic animals is another cause of death for lions and pathogens such as anthrax or rabies can cause local declines. The abundance of outbreaks increases with the proximity human land use and

inbreeding (Kissui and Packer 2004). Poaching lions for material gain occurs at least in western Tanzania (Borgerhoff Mulder et al. 2009) but is relatively rare nationwide. Currently, the international marketing of lion bones seems to be no serious problem in Tanzania. Separating the living space of lions and humans as much as possible is the most effective way to reduce human-wildlife conflicts and this can only be accomplished is by extensive dedication of land to wildlife conservation or fences which are a conservation problem of their own (Creel et al. 2013; Packer et al 2013a,b) Similarly to the loss of habitat, lack of prey does not result in countable deaths and therefore its effects are difficult to assess. The reproductive success and survival of lions is positively and the number of attacks on humans negatively correlated with prey availability (Haas et al. 2005; Packer et al. 2005) and if hunting on ungulates for trophies or bush meet is poorly regulated the lion population

will inexorably decrease. Under these circumstances, the only form of sustainable land use which can conserve the lion habitats is tourism. Where the landscape and accompanying fauna is not attractive enough and 11 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania the necessary infrastructure for photo tourism is not available, the only remaining option to generate income from lion habitats is hunting. Essentially everyone we spoke to in Tanzania, which included representatives of all main stakeholders (even those that were critical of the governments past efforts to conserve the species), agreed that trophy hunting has a clear conservation benefit for lions. Hunting is a selection factor and has the potential to influence the social and genetic structure of a lion population. Traces of previous decades of unsustainable hunting are probably still responsible for differences in the population density and age structure between national parks and less

protected areas. In contrast, current offtake rates are most likely compatible with an increase of lion density and higher representation of older cohorts even this might be prevented by other source of mortality. In order to ensure sustainability, it is necessary to further reduce the effective harvest for males under 6 years of age and we had the impression that Tanzania is working towards this goal. 12 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Management With a mandate from the president, the Director of Wildlife is the supreme authority for all matters concerning wildlife. Recently, a new government agency, TAWA, has been founded and entrusted with the management of wildlife outside national parks and Ngorongoro Conservation Area . This should ensure that all income generated from hunting is invested in the management and protection of wildlife. However, TAWA also has the agenda to develop tourism and under this mandate the income from

sustainable wildlife management can still be diverted into projects that do not benefit conservation or even counteract this objective. Figure 7: Fees and revenue sharing from trophy hunting in Tanzania after TAWIRI (2016) and information received during the field mission. The Tanzania Wildlife Protection Fund (TWPF) is replenished solely by a share of the revenues from the hunting sector collected for the block fees, issuing of hunting permits (Wildlife Subsector Statistical Bulletin 2013) and observer fees for every person accompanying a hunter (Anonymus 2013). All expenses for the staff and infrastructure of the rangers under the administration of TAWA have to be met from these incomes. Hence, the quality of the protection and all anti-poaching activities for a large part of the lion range directly depend on the income generated by hunting. This income dropped by about 30% following the import bans for lion and elephant trophies enacted by the EU and the USA. During our field

mission several officials of the wildlife management convincingly described how hunting on lion is managed in Tanzania. This includes the implementation of all broadly accepted recommendations (Packer et al. 2011; Lindsey et al 2013) The core element is the allocation of quotas to hunting lots according to the regional lion density, previous hunts, and the mortality from other causes (e.g human-wildlife conflicts) More information on the work of the Tanzanian wildlife management authority is provided in the following sections wherein quota and sex and age restrictions are discussed. 13 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Tanzania has also published a very elaborate “National Strategy to Combat Poaching and Illegal Wildlife Trade” (Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism 2014). Quota Fertility and survivability of the cubs varies for lions according to availability of prey, habitat protection, demography, landscape and accessibility

of water (Kissui et al. 2010) This causes regional differences in the reproductive output of populations. Therefore, calculating harvesting quota according to the population size, reproductive output and other sources of mortality would be the ideal solution. Even if all available information about the local situation is used to adapt the quota, this requires a very precautionary approach and surveillance of the population development (Creel et al. 2016) However, the required data are usually not available on for lions and therefore hunting quotas are normally based on the size of the habitat and modified according to the available information. Figure 8: Utilization of lion trophy hunting quota in Tanzania from TAWIRI (2016) For Tanzania a quota of 0.5/1,000 km² (with the exception of Selous where 10/1,000 km² is deemed as sustainable) has been proposed (Packer et al. 2011) In 2010 the offtake of lions in Tanzania was reduced by 60% and is now following the above recommendations

without indications of negative consequences for the population. 14 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Figure 9: Regional harvest rates for lions since 2011 from TAWIRI (2016) The small-scale allocation of hunting quotas, as it is practiced by Tanzania, provides for an equal distribution of the harvesting. However, the huge workload involved prevents a detailed assessment of every hunting block at short intervals. Since 2012, the actual harvesting has fallen far below the allowed quota, either because of not locating an appropriate specimen in the presence of a tourist hunter or because of a failure to attract customers to a specific hunting block. Figure 10: Average harvest rates in the main ecosystem of lion range in Tanzania between 2011 and 2014 from TAWIRI (2016) 15 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Sex and Age Restrictions Age and sex restrictions are strongly recommended for

sustainable trophy hunting on lions (Packer et al. 2006, 2009) and were introduced by Tanzania in 2010 under the Tourist Hunting Regulations of 2010. In sections 24(5)(a) and 24(6) of these Regulations (now superseded by section 27 (1) of the Tourist Hunting Regulations of 2015) hunting of females is prohibited, as is the killing of males below 6 years of age. Any professional hunter who guides a client to hunt a lion in contravention of these regulations is considered to have committed an offence and liable for penalties. Trophies assessed to be under 4 years-old are not allowed to be exported and incur a penalty which may include revocation of the professional hunters’ license; lions in the 4 5 year category are allowed to be exported but still incur financial penalties. Whereas the sex restriction is broadly accepted, the age criteria probably are not uniformly advantageous in every population. Protection of males until they have completed at least one breeding cycle is essential

to prevent a depletion of the gene pool but infanticide might only be important in areas with high migration (e.g Serengeti) and less relatedness among neighboring prides (Spong et al. 2002) Local selection and adaptation is poorly understood but probably rather pronounced according to the differences in the size of manes between the lions of Selous and Maasai Mara. Accordingly, the most easily recognizable age-classes might differ regionally and have to be adapted to ease compliance with hunting restrictions (Miller et al. 2016) However, the frequent disruption of the social structure might have other consequences e.g the practice and success of social hunting strategies which in turn influence the survival of offspring. Another reason for an age restriction is to ensure a stable sex ratio. According to information we received during the field mission, hunting does shift the ratio from 1:2 to 1:3 and that should have no serious consequences on the reproduction of the population. A

severe deviation could, however, reduce the formation of groups and survival of young males. An important argument for the lower age restrictions in Tanzania is the assertion that lions usually do not reach an age above 7 years in Selous because they mainly hunt buffalos which entails a high risk for serious injury. No scientific data are available to test this theory besides the difficulty to track down a high number of really old lions for hunting. However, males expelled from their pride have a low life expectancy and it is probably difficult to locate them for hunting before they die a natural death. The age criterion, as it is currently practiced in Tanzania, provides an effective protection for young males but does not prevent the killing of reproductive active males. While this practice 16 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania does not seem to be detrimental for the population, when done in combination with the density restrictions, it

might be possible to improve the harvesting strategy with more insight into the local reproductive biology of lions. The main characteristics used for the age assessment of male lions in Tanzania are mane development, pulp closure of premolars, abrasion of teeth, and nose coloration (White and Belant 2016; White et al. 2016) This combination provides very accurate results whereas guides developed for other areas (e.g Whitman and Packer 2006) would lead to a strong underestimate of the age of lions from Selous. Figure 11: Change in the age of lions killed in trophy hunting from TAWIRI (2016) (modified) 17 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Compliance Measures Without proper enforcement, legislation and management cannot take any effect. With respect to lion hunting in Tanzania, the following measures seem to be most important in terms of demonstrating a robust and transparent mechanism for controlling the age of trophies:   

     Official Scouts appointed by TAWA are required to accompany every hunt by law. A Safari return form (figure 13 and 14) has to be completed for each 21 or 28 days safari, whether successful or unsuccessful, which includes details about the circumstances and lion encounters. The hunting company has to take detailed measurements and pictures (e.g nose color and extend of mane) as well as blood and skin samples for DNA analyses and deliver them with the skull to the management department. Since 2011, Tanzania has signed a Memorandum of Understanding with IGF Foundation which is a French based International organization for wildlife Conservation . IFG Foundation assists the Wildlife Division and now TAWA in organizing the collection and surveillance of lion trophies. Skulls are allocated a unique identification code and presented ‘blind’ to the Division for logging – i.e without the client details The lion skulls are measured and one upper pre-molar tooth is

extracted and retained by the Wildlife Division for age assessment (by determining the width of the pulp cavity via X-ray radiography). According to all the collected data the age of the lion is assessed. These ageing sessions are conducted by Wildlife Division/TAWA staff in collaboration with experts from TAWIRI and IGF Foundation Blind controls of the age verification process have been carried out by independent researchers and species specialists All information is stored in a database. Tanzania’s records of its implementation of the age restriction system are open to scrutiny to the international scientific community and returned forms and data outputs were examined during the field mission. A CITES export permit will not be issued unless all the above paperwork has been submitted and ageing verification checks completed. Beside a monetary fine, the denial of export permission and the reduction of the quota are used to encourage compliance. Taken altogether, the current

measurements seem to provide an effective mechanism for ensuring that hunting operators are complying with the age and sex restrictions. 18 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Figure 12: Sanctions for violations against the lion trophy hunting regulations of Tanzania from TAWIRI (2016) 19 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Figure 13: Page 1 of the safari hunting return form used to collect data about trophy hunting on lions in Tanzania from TAWIRI (2016) 20 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Figure 14: Page 2 of the safari hunting return form used to collect data about trophy hunting on lions in Tanzania from TAWIRI (2016) 21 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Figure 15: Age assessment form used to collect data about the age of lions hunted in Tanzania from TAWIRI (2016) 22 Source:

http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Community Based Natural Rsource Management (CBNRM) Especially in a country with rapid population growth, humans and wild animals increasingly compete for resources. Involvement of rural communities in the decision making process and material incentives are essential to mitigate human-wildlife conflicts. Figure 16: Summary of facts related to the CBNRM in Tanzania after information received during the field mission With the Wildlife Conservation Act enacted in 2009, Tanzania implements these principles into practice by grating the communities registered land ownership rights and allowing them to establish Wildlife Management Areas (WMAs) which are allowed to lease the hunting rights. The only restrictions to the sovereignty of the communities are a minimum hunting block fee, the allocation of quotas (the District Councils are represented in the competent committee), and the accounting of all monetary flows by the

Director of Wildlife. None of these are necessarily a disadvantage for the communities. To reach the required minimum area for a hunting block of 200 km², several villages can make a joint venture. Rules and cash flow of the WMA system are transparent and well documented (e.g WWF 2014) The success of this program was confirmed to us by all participants and the numbers reinforce this conclusion. Initially, 22 WMAs dedicated 36000 km² to the protection and sustainable use of wildlife, what equates 3% of the national territory and an increase to 50.000 km² is in progress. These areas function as buffer zones between governmental sanctuaries and zones of 23 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania intense human activities and ease the migration and recolonization within the lion metapopulation (Dolrenry et al. 2014) Currently 54 out of 63 district councils profit from income accruing from the hunting industry. The WMAs contribute to the

protection of wildlife by obligatory conducting antipoching patrols, supervision of trophy hunting and collecting data about the wildlife and reports violations. Human-Wildlife Conflicts According to Tanzanian law, killing lions in self-defense is allowed if they threaten human life or livestock. With a population growth from 13,6 million in 1970 to about 50 million today and a widespread tradition that considers cattle as the most important status symbol, Tanzania is in a difficult situation where retaliation killings are the prime cause for unnatural death of lions. Less than 10 lions are annually killed officially through Problem Animal Control (PAC) but about 200 are killed in retaliation for livestock losses or human attacks or preventively. On average, 10 attacks occur each year on humans and over 150 on livestock but there are also reports of much higher levels, for example 35 people were reported to have been killed by one or a group of lions within 20 months (Baldus 2004). In

general, lion attacks increased over the last decades and are motivated by predation attempts (Ikanda 2009). A register about all reported lion attacks is kept and inspections revealed almost 90% accurate reporting. Considering these facts, it seems of little importance that Tanzania does not have any criteria to recognize a problem animal, besides a list of eligible species. The presence of predators has the potential to cause sustained psychological stress (Clinchy et al. 2013) and even if casualties can be kept on a low level, the acceptance of a life-threatening predator in the vicinity of human settlements will be extremely low (Dickman et al. 2014) Lions usually attack adult cattle and donkeys and often do so at daylight what makes them very vulnerable to direct retaliation killings (Kissui 2008). Compared to other predators, incidences with lions in the vicinity of the Serengeti National Park occur only close to the protected area (Holmern et al. 2007) This could indicate that

in this region a habitation of lions outside of the park borders became extremely unlikely. Similar observation are reported from Katavi (Kiffner et al. 2009) Considering a projected increase of the human population by 500 % or more until 2100 and a stock of about 27 million cattle (compared to 2,6 million in Botswana), it cannot be expected that Tanzania will be able to prevent a further increase of human-wildlife conflicts. 24 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Figure 17: Summary of facts related to human-wildlife conflicts with lions based on TAWIRI (2016) This threat to human lives puts a major responsibility on to the wildlife authorities and they employ various mitigation measures for human-lion conflict management, including securing bomas with wire mesh (Abade et al. 2014) and a consolation scheme for victims Whilst prevention of conflict is the key to coexistence, ensuring that people perceive the lions more positively can also

work to achieve greater tolerance, which includes the possibility of generating income through trophy hunting. 25 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Hunting Industry In Tanzania, hunting is a well-developed and organized business sector (represented by the Tanzania Hunting Operators Association TAHOA) with a considerable contribution to wildlife conservation and some contribution to the alleviation of poverty (Di Minin et al. 2016) During the field mission, even a representative of the photo tourism industry confirmed the necessity of hunting for the Tanzanian wildlife conservation management. Figure 18: Basics about the organization of hunting in Tanzania after information received during the field mission Figure 19: Summary about obligations and contributions of the hunting industry after TAWIRI (2016) and information received during the field mission. Hunting blocks are auctioned, as proposed by Macdonald (2016), and contributions

to antipoaching and social development of neighboring communities are a mandatory element of the bid. During the field mission several wildlife officers emphasized that without the cars, field guides, and surveillance provided by the hunting companies it would be impossible to fight poaching activities and push back the unregulated conversion of wildlife protected areas to other form of land use. Equally important is the direct income TAWA generates by issuing hunting licenses (4650$ + 18%VAT per 21 day license). 26 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Hunting enterprises are a commercial business model and sinking earnings in the course of import bans for iconic species reduced their willingness to invest. More than 50% of the customers are US citizens and 40% are Europeans. Hence, the hunting companies claim a 30% revenue loss following the import ban on lion and elephant trophies by these regions. Especially for new and inexperienced

companies it seems to be challenging to attract enough costumers and as a result the market is dominated by few large companies. The difficulty of the terrain and intensive rainy seasons (Selous is only accessible by car from July to December except by a few watershed roads on the hilltops) are among the many complications that the hunting industry of Tanzania faces. Currently, 47 out of 157 hunting bock are vacant in Tanzania and therefore the auctions fetch suboptimal results and demands to lower the prices for hunting licenses arise. Even more detrimental for the conservation of lions could be the option to hunt unsustainably and move to another plot when the game population is depleted. An extension of the lease lengths could be a necessary countermeasure (Brink et al. 2016) Although, even responsible entrepreneurs tend to move out of hunting blocks if tribes constantly invade the area. Compliance with the age restrictions requires considerable knowledge, and errors in the field

cannot be excluded. However, the current penalties seem to provide sufficient incentives to comply and increasingly Hunting Block operators are investing in camera traps, to assist in identifying suitable lions. This has the potential to reduce the killing of too young specimens 27 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Figure 20: Summary about interdependencies between hunting and conservation of lions in Tanzania after information received during the field mission 28 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Consequences of Hunting It is unknown to what extent differences in local population densities have been caused by unsustainable hunting in previous decades and hard to predict how the populations will develop under the current management practice. Currently, lion density is highest in national parks and declining with the protection status of the area. Conservation concerns related to lion

trophy hunting are usually focused on population size and trends. In addition to these quantitative considerations, more attention should be payed to the impacts on the genepool, behavior, and social structure. During the field mission we learned, that in Selous lions are seen more frequently during the wet season when they are not hunted. This indicates that lions are able to recognize hunting as a threat and adapts its behavior within short time. Furthermore, we received conflicting reports that sometimes lion are emigrating from areas where they are hunted and that in contrast hunting has no effects on the behavior of lions. If hunting drives animals from the core to the periphery of protected areas this could increase human-wildlife conflicts and retaliation killings. The effects of humans as “super predators” (Clinchy et al. 2016) seem to be poorly understood and research could provide valuable information for the management of the species. According to some unpublished data

we received from Dennis Ikanda, the gender ratio of nine prides around Kingupira shifted from 1:2 to 1:3 as a result of the sex restrictions for trophy hunting but the size did not change from 1967 to 1975 and 2013. Similar shifts have been reported from photographic tourism sectors of Selous (Brink et al. 2013) and other parts of the African lion range (Bouché et al. 2016) Hence, other factors besides hunting might be involved In addition the number of prides in the area remained within a constant range. This could indicate that in this area, hunting had no effect on the reproductive output of the population. The shift in the sex ratio might also reduce the aggressive conflicts between males and overturn of pride males with a reduction of the mortality resulting thereof. However, more research is needed to confirm these assumptions. 29 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Recommendations to Tanzania o Fast reactions to any kind of serious

information about a rapid population decline and regular updates for the estimated size of the national lion population, including results from the latest surveys, would enhance the confidence that others have in Tanzania’s commitment to conserve its lion populations. o It should be considered to restrict trophy hunting on lions to areas where a population survey has been conducted within a reasonable period which is defined according to the local threat, national importance of the population, and annual offtake. o The use of camera traps to identify suitable lions to hunt should be encouraged. This would further reduce the taking of animals less than 6 years of age and assist with quota allocation. o Roads make the surveillance of an area easier. On the other hand, inaccessibility by roads provides the most effective protection for the wildlife of large reserves, such as Selous. Therefore, the advantages of upgrading and maintaining the road system (e.g by a hunting block owner)

needs to be balanced against the risks to the conservation of the wildlife and habitat it runs through. Acknowledgements We wish to express our gratitude to the government and Wildlife Division of Tanzania for providing the opportunity to visit Selous and comprehend the enormous size and management challenges of this area as well as the meetings with many outstanding experts who dedicated their valuable time to answer all our questions. Furthermore, we want to thank all who helped in organizing the field mission, especially Hélène PERIER (EU Commission), the EU Delegation to Tanzania, and TAIEF. Special appreciation for the success of this mission is extended to:    Major General Gaudence S. Milanzi, Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, United Republic of Tanzania Frederick A. Ligate, Senior Wildlife Officer – CITES desk, Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism Wildlife Division Mr. Herman Keraryo, former Director of Wildlife, Ministry of

Natural Resources and Tourism, Wildlife Division 30 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania          Prof. Alexander Songorwa, Acting Director of Wildlife, Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism Mr. Martin Loibooki, Ag Director General, Tanzania Wildlife Management Authority (TAWA) Dr. Simon Mduma - Director General, Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute (TAWIRI) Dr. Dennis Ikanda - Director, Kingupira Wildlife Research Centre, TAWIRI Mr. Robert Mande, Assistant Director of Anti-Poaching, Wildlife Division, MNRT Mr. Mabula Misungwi, outgoing Manager of the Selous Game Reserve, and his successor, Mr Henock H.Z Msocha, who hosted the field trip Maria Chiara Femiano, Programme Officer-Climate Change and Environment, EU Delegation to Tanzania Benson Kibonde, former Manager , Selous Game Reserve in Tanzania The NALIKA and JUKUMU Wildlife Management Areas and Tunduru District Council We also wish to thank all the other

the participants of our meetings in Tanzania who contributed in different ways to the success of the mission:                        Abdalah Sais Nasoro (NALIKA WMA) Abdukadir L. Mohamed (Tanzania Hunting Operators Association-TAHOA) Ally Issa Mkunvate (Rahaleo Village - Chairman) Ally Mdoso (Rahaleo-Village) Caroline M. Mchome (MNRT-Legal Unit) Cassian C. Mahundi (MNRT - Community Based Conservation Section) Donatus Gasive (Elephant Monitoring Ngorongoro Conservation Area) Eric Pasanisi (Tanzania Hunting Operators Association - Chairman) Ezekiel Dembe (TANAPA) Faustine Ntemi (Selous Game Reserve Matambwe Zone) Gabriel Banzo (Selous Game Reserve - Zonal Accommodation Logistics) George Wambura (WMAs - AA Consortium) Harry Charalambars (Tanzania Hunting Operators Association-TAHOA) Hassan Jomeke (Selous Game Reserve Matambwe Zone) Henock H.Z Msocha (Selous Game Reserve - incoming Manager) Issa Mmura Issa Rahaleo

(NALIKA WMA - Village Game Scout) Issac Newanishi (Selous Game Reserve Kalulu Zone - Manager) J. Mohamed Yasin Jalasa (NALIKA WMA) Joas J. Makwati (MNRT - Utilization Section) John Kaava (MNRT-Antipoaching section) Juma Bombwe (Selous Game Reserve - Zonal Game Scout) Kay Kasaruki (MNRT-Research, Statistics and Trainings) Lawrence Okode (Selous Game Reserve - Zonal Manager-Matambwe) 31 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania                         Lazaro Tipap (Selous Game Reserve - Zonal Head of Aerial Surveillance) Leonard Mayeta (MNRT-TAWA) Luke Samaras (Tanzania Hunting Operators Association-TAHOA) Mackivu A. Kaiwangwa (Pilot & Principle Warden TANAPA) Mary Hilarv Selous (Game Reserve Matambwe Zone) Mary R. Kashangaki (Selous Game Reserve Kingupira Zone - Wildlife Officer) Mathias Rwegasira (MNRT-Wildlife Development) Maximillan Jenes (PAMS Foundation) Mboka Hussen

Mbwana (Rahaleo NALIKA WMA - Village Game Scout) Meinrad T. Wambura (MNRT - Legal Unit) Mike Angelides (Tanzania Hunting Operators Association-TAHOA - Secretary General) Mohamed Taki (Tanzania Hunting Operators Association-TAHOA) Mohmmed Madehele (MNRT-Problem Animal Control desk) Mwita Matiko (Tanzania Hunting Operators Association-TAHOA) Mzee Haridi (Rahaleo-Village) Peter O. Mtani (Tunduru-District - Game Officer) Rashid Kazembe (Mnomba Ward Councilor) Richard Rugimbana (Tourism Confederation of Tanzania-TCT ) Saidi I. Pachanva (Rahaleo-Village) Saidi Medda (Selous Game Reserve Matambwe Zone) Sanzu gwimo Barandagiye (Selous Game Reserve - Zonal Administration and Logistics Warden ,Matambwe) Shaabani H. Omar (Rahaleo-Village - Executive Officer) Shabani Kolahili (JUKUMU WMA - Chairman) Shenva Daniel (Selous Game Reserve - Zonal Game Scout) 32 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy Hunting in Tanzania Summary Even if considering only lion trophy hunting, it is

a considerable challenge to provide a consistent picture of the conservation status and management quality for a large and diverse country, such as Tanzania. Taking all the possibly detrimental factors into account (Kideghesho et al. 2013), it seems likely that the lion population of Tanzania will continue to decline outside of protected areas (Riggio et al. 2013) However, under the current circumstances controlled trophy hunting helps to mitigate the losses. In addition, incentives to dedicate additional areas to the conservation of wildlife depend to a large extend on the revenues from trophy hunting and these again are strongly correlated with the availability of iconic species, such as lions. Tanzania has several large protected lion populations with a relatively stable population trend, the current management practice should be sufficient to prevent hunting from being detrimental and able to conserve the long-term survival of the national lion population. During the last years,

Tanzania has increased its awareness for the need to survey and manage the national lion population and reached a conservation level which is in accordance with CoP17 Res. 179 and the self-imposed requirements of the European Union for allowing the import of hunting trophies. Based on the findings of the field mission and the available literature we are confident, that it is possible to recommend a positive SRG opinion for the import of lion trophies from Tanzania. Nevertheless, it has to be acknowledged that the conservation of lions will provide a continuing or even increasing challenge for Tanzania. The current management practice and the dedication and enthusiasm of those who are in charge are promising. However, rapid reactions to rumors about a local crises and continued research are indispensable and without continuing efforts, questions about the sustainability of trophy hunting on this species will raise again. 33 Source: http://www.doksinet Sustainability of Lion Trophy

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