Language learning | English » Christopher Ross - Linkers, and Overview

Source: http://www.doksinet 1 LINKERS: AN OVERVIEW List of contents 1 Introduction . 2 2 How to use linkers correctly . 2 3 2.1 Connecting sentences: S2S linkers . 2 2.2 Connecting clauses: C2C linkers . 3 2.3 The ‘fanboys’ . 4 Common linkers and their functions . 5 3.1 Indicating time relations . 5 3.2 Listing / Adding points . 5 3.3 Generalising, specifying, explaining and giving examples . 7 3.4 Expressing cause, effect and purpose . 7 3.5 Comparing and contrasting . 8 3.6 Presenting an argument . 8 3.7 Summarising and concluding . 9 Christopher Ross, Institute for English Business Communication, WU, May 2011 Source: http://www.doksinet 2 1 Introduction Good English texts are coherent, in other words, they follow an underlying logic. In order to assist readers in following that logic, various devices are used to make it explicit. Linkers are one type of such cohesive devices. If you understand how they work and what they mean, you will not

only be much better able to understand the messages transmitted by English texts. You will also be able to produce clearly understandable texts of your own that get your desired message across accurately. The topic of linkers is a very complex one that does not fit well into the usual grammatical categories. This document can therefore do no more than provide an introduction to it Section 2 discusses some general principles about the correct use of linkers. Section 3 then lists some of the most commonly used linkers, divided up by their function (to indicate a time sequence, a cause, a contrast, etc). Of course, the lists provided cannot claim to be complete in any way. Equally, you may find that in some texts that you read the principles set out are not followed – just like most grammatical ‘rules’. Nonetheless, following them will enable you to write much more effectively. 2 How to use linkers correctly Before we can use linkers correctly, we must understand what elements of

a text they connect, which in turn requires us to know the difference between a sentence (Satz) and a clause (Teilsatz) in English. That is not hard to grasp  A sentence consists of the text between two full stops, its first word begins with a capital letter and it contains at least one verb.  A clause is a part of a sentence; it must contain a verb and is sometimes, but not always, marked off from the rest of the sentence by commas either before or after it, or both. Clauses can be subdivided into: main clauses, which contain no linker and – with proper punctuation – would be sentences in their own right; and subordinate clauses, which contain – usually, start with – a linker and could not be free-standing sentences. Not all sentences include a subordinate clause, while some contain several. Each of the following sentences contains two clauses, the subordinate one being underlined. Even though she hated the heat, Jill went to Brazil. Jack went to Switzerland because

he loves mountains. These definitions and distinctions are important because dividing linkers up on the basis of whether they connect sentences, or clauses, or will not only help us to place them correctly in sentences but also to punctuate these correctly. Note: In written English, a sentence consisting of two main clauses, whether or not separated by a comma, is considered incorrect. Jack went to Switzerland, he loves mountains. 2.1 Connecting sentences: S2S linkers The largest group of linkers is made up of those that are used only to express a connection between two separate sentences: that in which they appear and the one before it. For that reason we will call them ‘S2S linkers’. Placing: S2S linkers most frequently come at the start of a sentence, although they may come in the middle (at some suitable break) or even at the end. That causes no confusion because the reader knows that the connection they express is always with the previous sentence, never with a part of the

same one. Punctuation: An S2S linker is usually separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma (or by two, if it comes in the middle), but it need not be, especially if the sentence is a short one. Christopher Ross, Institute for English Business Communication, WU, May 2011 Source: http://www.doksinet 3 These points are illustrated by the following examples, in which the linkers are underlined. Our company’s CEO resigned last Tuesday. As a result, its share price fell Our main competitor has reduced its prices. We must therefore decide on how to react. The first part of our plan worked well. From then on things went badly, however Note: If the second clause of a sentence begins with and, but or or, it is treated as if it were a separate sentence for these purposes, so that S2S linkers may be used within it. Kosovo has not yet been recognised by many of the world’s countries, and is therefore not a member of the United Nations. Typical mistake: Using an S2S linker between

two clauses of a sentence (with or without a comma afterwards) with the intention of expressing a connection between them. Jack went to Switzerland, however, he would really have preferred to go to Austria. Our main competitor has reduced its prices, therefore we must decide on how to react. Solution: Put a full stop before the linker OR replace the S2S linker with a C2C linker (see 2.2) or a ‘fanboy’ (see 23) having the same function Jack went to Switzerland although he would really have preferred to go to Austria. Our main competitor has reduced its prices, so we must decide on how to react. 2.2 Connecting clauses: C2C linkers The second group of linkers consists of those that are used only to express a connection between two clauses within the same sentence. In that sense they are exactly the opposite of the first group, and we will call them ‘C2C linkers’. Placing: C2C linkers always come at the start of a subordinate clause. If that is the first clause in the sentence,

then the linker will start the sentence. That causes no confusion because the reader knows that the connection expressed cannot be with the previous sentence, but must be with a later clause in the same one. Punctuation: C2C linkers are never followed by commas (but see Note to 3.3 below) If such a linker comes at the start of the second (or later) clause in the sentence, there is usually no comma before it either, unless the clause is a long one. These points are illustrated by the following examples, in which the linkers are again underlined. Although he is well qualified, he did not get the job / He did not get the job although he is well qualified. As she injured herself shortly before the world championship, she had to miss it. / She had to miss the world championship as she injured herself shortly before. He did not get the job, although he is well qualified and also has ten years’ experience in various management positions with three different multinational firms. Note 2:

Some C2C linkers can be used mid-sentence followed by a verb in the’ –ing’ form. In this case, the subjects of the two clauses must be the same. She is currently busy raising funds while working on a business plan. Typical mistake 1: Using a C2C linker at the start of a sentence with the intention of expressing a connection with the previous one (even worse: with a comma after it). She had to miss the world championship. As she injured herself shortly before The man who got the job had very few qualifications. Whereas, she is well qualified Solution: Change the full stop before the linker to a comma OR replace the C2C linker with an S2S linker (see 2.1) or a ‘fanboy’ (see 23) having the same function She had to miss the world championship. For she had injured herself shortly before The man who got the job had very few qualifications. By contrast, the female candidate was well qualified. Christopher Ross, Institute for English Business Communication, WU, May 2011 Source:

http://www.doksinet 4 Typical mistake 2: Confusing a preposition with a C2C linker. Despite our CEO resigned last Tuesday, the company’s share price has fallen only slightly. Solution: Replace the preposition by an appropriate C2C linker OR change the clause started by the preposition into a noun or noun phrase. Even though our CEO resigned last Tuesday, the company’s share price has fallen only slightly. Despite our CEO’s resignation last Tuesday the company’s share price has fallen only slightly. 2.3 The ‘fanboys’ The final group of linkers in this sense is the smallest, having only seven members, but it includes some of the most commonly used. They are known by the acronym ‘fanboys’ made from their initial letters: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so They differ from S2S and C2C linkers in that they can join together either two sentences or two clauses within one sentence. Traditionally, only the second of these two uses was considered correct. Nowadays, this

‘rule’ can no longer be said to apply, as can be confirmed by studying good-quality newspapers and books, even if using a fanboy at the start of a sentence may still be regarded as informal, or even incorrect, in some circles. Placing: The price of this flexibility in use is complete rigidity in terms of placing; fanboys always come immediately after the first clause (or sentence) they connect, that is, at the start of the second clause (or sentence). Punctuation: Fanboys are also rigid in their punctuation. They must be preceded by a comma (or a full stop), and they generally have no comma following them. The following examples illustrate these points. The oil price is rising steadily, and other input costs are likely to increase sharply in the near future. The oil price is expected to continue rising for at least another year, if not two. So petrol prices are bound to go up. As they suggest, the use of fanboys to connect two sentences is most common when the first sentence is

relatively long and the second relatively short. Note 1: Occasionally, a fanboy may be followed by a comma, if the next clause (or sentence) is itself separated off by two commas. The oil price is rising steadily, and, unless demand for energy is reduced, it will continue to do so. Note 2: On the other hand, it is becoming more common to omit the preceding comma, especially in the above situation or if the following clause is short, although doing so may still be considered incorrect in formal US English. Typical mistake: Inserting a comma after a fanboy, especially when it is used to connect two sentences. Our profits have fallen dramatically relative to a year ago. But, they are still higher than in 2008. Solution: Remove the comma, or replace the ‘fanboy’ by an S2S linker. Our profits have fallen dramatically relative to a year ago. Accordingly, we must think of a new strategy. Christopher Ross, Institute for English Business Communication, WU, May 2011 Source:

http://www.doksinet 5 3 Common linkers and their functions Having dealt with the use of linkers in general, we turn now to their different functions, that is, the type of connections they express. For each function, or group of functions, a number of the most common linkers are listed along with an indication of their type as defined in Section 1, comments on their usage and some examples of this (in the third column of the tables, ‘F’ indicates an especially formal linker, ‘I’ an especially informal one). It is important to realise that the same linker may fulfil more than one function, and that some linkers can also be used as prepositions, either with a similar function (e.g ‘before’) or with a completely different one (e.g ‘for’) 3.1 Indicating time relations a) Time sequence Linker Type initially S2S first (of all) . second . third S2S then S2S F/I Comment Example Initially, she concentrated on fund-raising. ‘Firstly’ etc are also used but less

commonly. First of all, he raised some funds. Second, he bought premises. Third, he Then, she took on an assistant. next afterwards F subsequently F thereafter Thereafter, she employed an assistant. later Later, she took on more staff. previously S2S F Previously, he had carried out market research. beforehand before C2C Before taking on staff, she had carried out market research. S2S She eventually managed to make a profit. after eventually in the end She managed to make a profit in the end. finally finally S2S Indicates the end of the sequence. Finally, she retired. b) Parallelism, simultaneity Linker Type meanwhile S2S F/I Comment Meanwhile, he looked for suitable staff. Example while C2C at the same time S2S While he was looking for staff, she was busy raising funds. At the same time, she was busy raising funds. when C2C in the meantime When a bank granted them a loan, they were in business. 3.2 Listing / Adding points a) Listing Linker

Type first . second third . S2S next S2S F/I Comment Firstly etc. are also used but less commonly. Example First, you need funds. Second, you must have premises. Third, you Next, you will require suitable staff. Christopher Ross, Institute for English Business Communication, WU, May 2011 Source: http://www.doksinet 6 for one thing . for another S2S finally S2S last but not least S2S For one thing, you need some suitable staff. For another, you require funding. Indicates the last item in the list. Finally, you will need a lot of luck. Last but not least, you will need adequate funding. b) Adding points Linker Type F/I Comment and Example The workers are unhappy, and the union is planning a strike. while C2C also S2S as well S2S The workers are unhappy, while the union is planning a strike. I too in addition Typically comes in mid-sentence. A go-slow is also being considered. Comes only in midsentence or end position. The managers are unhappy as

well. S2S The managers, too, are unhappy In addition, the union will organise pickets. additionally furthermore S2S moreover F F what is more besides S2S in any case I I above all and S2S Indicates that the point added is more important than the previous one. Moreover, the TUC will back any union decision at local level. Indicates a final In any case, the workers are so angry that they point that outweighs are determined to strike. the earlier one(s). As above. With this And the workers are determined to go ahead, meaning, and starts come what may. a new sentence. c) Options and alternatives Linker Type F/I Comment or Example We could go on strike, or we could call a workto-rule. alternatively S2S F We could work to rule. Alternatively, we could strike. on the other hand S2S There is no need for On the other hand, we could enter into an earlier on the one negotiations. hand. otherwise S2S Always begins a sentence. Otherwise, we will have to call a strike

d) Adding to a negative point Linker Type nor F/I F Comment Example Note the question- The workers would not agree to a strike. like word order. Nor was a go-slow a realistic option. There is no need for an earlier neither. either S2S This always ends a sentence. A go-slow was not a realistic option either. Christopher Ross, Institute for English Business Communication, WU, May 2011 Source: http://www.doksinet 7 3.3 Generalising, specifying, explaining and giving examples Linker Type in general S2S F/I Comment In general, negotiations achieve more than industrial action. S2S Specifically, strikes rarely succeed. S2S Indeed, most strikes end in disaster. generally Example on the whole specifically to be specific indeed in fact in other words S2S / that is C2C for example S2S / for instance C2C See Note below In other words, they bring only disadvantages for workers. Most strikes are disasters, that is, they do not help workers at all. See Note

below In the 1980s, for example, the numerous strikes called in the UK failed to save jobs. Strikes often fail, for instance, those called in Britain during the 198os did not save jobs. thus S2S This always begins a Thus, the numerous strikes called in the UK sentence. during the 1980s failed to save jobs Note. These linkers are exceptions in that they can be used as either S2S or C2C In the latter case, again exceptionally, they are followed by a comma and, logically, can only come at the start of the second (or later) clause in the sentence whose clauses they link. 3.4 Expressing cause, effect and purpose a) Cause / reason Linker Type because C2C F/I Comment Because rarely begins a sentence. as Example The worker was dismissed because he had broken company regulations. since Since he had broken company regulations, the worker was dismissed. for The worker was dismissed. For she had broken company regulations. b) Effect / result Linker Type F/I Comment so

Example He broke company regulations, so he was dismissed. therefore S2S Typically comes mid- He was therefore dismissed. sentence. thus hence S2S this/that is why STS F This can also be Hence he was dismissed. used to introduce Hence his dismissal. short sentences with no verb This always begins a That is why he was dismissed. sentence. c) Purpose / aim Linker Type in order to C2C so as to so that in order that F/I I C2C Comment These are followed by infinitives. Example In order to avoid further problems, the worker was fired immediately. Typically comes mid- The worker was fired immediately, so that sentence. further problems could be avoided. Christopher Ross, Institute for English Business Communication, WU, May 2011 Source: http://www.doksinet 8 3.5 Comparing and contrasting a) Comparing Linker Type similarly S2S F/I Comment Abel Bros have tended to promote the company image rather than particular products. Similarly, Cain plc has focused its

effort mainly on PR. just as C2C Just as Abel Bros have tended to promote the company image rather than particular products, Cain plc has focused its effort mainly on PR. in comparison S2S likewise These focus on the idea of more / less within a basic similarity. by comparison Example By comparison, Cain plc has spent a large amount on product advertising. b) Contrasting Linker Type in contrast S2S F/I These focus on stressing difference (cf. previous entry) S2S There is no need for On the other hand, Job has spent heavily on an earlier on the one product advertising. hand. by contrast on the other (hand) Comment Example Job, by contrast, has spent heavily on product advertising. If on the one hand On the one hand, Abel has tended to focus on was used, the PR. On the other, Cain has spent heavily on second hand is often product advertising. omitted whereas C2C Whereas Abel has tended to focus on PR, Cain has spent heavily on product advertising. while

conversely S2S F Indicates an opposition or reversal Abel has focused almost entirely on PR. Conversely, Cain has largely ignored that aspect of promotion. 3.6 Presenting an argument IMPORTANT NOTE: These linkers also express contrast. However, unlike those listed in 3.5b), they indicate to the reader which side of contrast is to be seen as more important, in some sense. Thus, whereas the examples in 35b) gave no indication of which strategy - Abel’s or Cain’s - was to be seen as better, those given below do exactly that. a) Indicating the more important point(s) Linker Type F/I Comment but yet Example Abel Bros have successfully promoted the firm’s reputation, but Cain plc has made larger profits through its heavy use of advertising. F however S2S However, Cain plc has made larger profits through its heavy use of advertising. though S2S In this sense, never begins a sentence. nevertheless S2S These stress the Cain plc has not paid much attention to its truth

of a statement reputation. Nevertheless, it has succeeded in that seems unlikely making large profits. in view of the previous one. nonetheless even so still I Cain plc, though, has made larger profits through its heavy use of advertising Christopher Ross, Institute for English Business Communication, WU, May 2011 Source: http://www.doksinet 9 on the contrary S2S in fact actually I These stress that Cain’s ignoring of PR spending might seem a the exact opposite of recipe for disaster. On the contrary, it has the previous brought the firm large profits. statement is true b) Indicating the less important point(s) i) Within a sentence Linker Type although C2C F/I even though albeit F though Comment In this sense, though is simply a short form of although. Example Although Abel Bros have successfully promoted the firm’s reputation, Cain plc has made larger profits through its heavy use of advertising. ii) Over one or more sentences Unlike all the others

described here, these linkers refer forward to a later sentence (not always the next one) which itself contains a linker of type a) above. They allow an argument to begin with one or more points that are unfavourable to it, without the risk that the reader will see these as the more important ones. Linker Type F/I it is true (that) S2S F admittedly or F for sure C2C Comment All these usually begin a sentence. of course Example It is true that Abel Bros have focused strongly on PR. As a result, they enjoy an admirable reputation. However, Cain plc has made larger profits by concentrating almost entirely on advertising. certainly Note: These linkers can also be used to connect the clauses of a sentence, in which case the second clause will begin with but or yet. Admittedly Abel enjoys an admirable reputation, but Cain has made larger profits 3.7 Summarising and concluding Linker Type to sum up S2S These usually begin a sentence not including a conclusion or

recommendation. S2S These usually begin In conclusion, it is clear that Abel would be a sentence that may well-advised to rethink its strategy. not just summarise but draw logical conclusions or give advice. summing up in sum(mary) all in all F/I Comment Example To sum up, Cain has significantly outperformed Abel in recent years. in short in conclusion to conclude Christopher Ross, Institute for English Business Communication, WU, May 2011